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Conflict  or  Cooperation 


STUDY  OUTLINE 

By 

J.  B.  Matthews 

and 

Sylvanus  M.  Duvall 


THE  AMERICAN  COMMITTEE 
WORLD  YOUTH  PEACE  CONGRESS 

104  East  9th  Street,  Room  386 
New  York  City 


393 


/ 


i 


CONFLICT  OR  COOPERATION 


A  Study  Outline 


By 

JOSEPH  B.  MATTHEWS 
and 

SYLVANUS  M.  DUVALL 


CONTENTS 


I.  OUR  INHERITANCE  — THE  WORLD  AS  IT  IS. 

II.  AREAS  OF  CONFLICT. 

III.  NATIONALISM. 

IV.  THE  ECONOMIC  ORDER. 

V.  IMPERIALISM. 

VI.  INTERRACIAL  RELATIONS. 

VII.  RELIGION  AND  PEACE. 

VIII.  PROPAGANDA  OR  HISTORY. 

IX.  FORCES  TENDING  TO  PERPETUATE  A 
CONFLICT  SYSTEM. 

X.  AGENCIES  WORKING  FOR  COOPERATION. 

XI.  WHAT  YOUTH  CAN  DO. 

XII.  THROUGH  CONFLICT  TO  COOPERATION. 
APPENDIX:  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LEADERS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


OUR  INHERITANCE  —  THE  WORLD  AS  IT  IS. 

“Put-put-put-put”  .  .  .  machine  guns  and  rifles  spat  fire  and 
lead.  When  it  was  over  some  five  hundred  dead  and  fifteen 
hundred  wounded  lay  upon  the  ground. 

In  India  the  demand  for  Swaraj — self-government — was 
growing.  The  Rowlatt  Act,  giving  to  the  administration  the  power 
to  make  arbitrary  arrests  and  to  inflict  summary  punishment  had 
aroused  bitter  resentment.  Several  outbreaks  had  occurred;  banks 
had  been  looted  and  their  managers  killed,  and  a  woman  physician 
had  been  beaten  almost  to  death.  Feeling  unable  to  handle  the 
situation,  the  Deputy  Commissioner  turned  complete  control  over 
to  the  military  governor,  General  Dyer,  who  promptly  forbade  all 
meetings  without  his  consent.  In  violation  of  this  order  some 
five  thousand  people  met  on  May  13,  1919,  near  Amritsar  in  the 
Punjab,  to  protest  against  the  ruthless  policy  of  the  foreigner. 
Although  the  crowd  was  composed  of  unarmed  civilians,  some  of 
whom  had  not  even  heard  of  the  order,  General  Dyer  surrounded 
them  with  his  soldiers  and  without  any  order  to  disperse  or  even 
a  word  of  warning,  at  once  opened  fire.  The  firing  continued 
until  the  ammunition  was  exhausted.  Then  the  troops  left  the 
field  without  any  attempt  to  help  the  wounded.  Said  General 
Dyer,  “It  was  not  then  my  duty  to  render  aid.  It  was  a  medical 
question.” 1 

Why  this  act  of  almost  incredible  barbarity?  No  violence 
was  threatened ;  General  Dyer  himself  testifying  that  “I  think  it 
quite  possible  that  I  could  have  dispersed  them  perhaps  even 
without  firing.”  Nor  was  it  merely  the  fiendish  act  of  a  maniacal 
commander.  It  was  done  deliberately  for  a  definite  purpose. 
These  two  thousand  people  were  shot  down  in  cold  blood  because 
General  Dyer  and  those  who  approved  his  action  believed,  in 
view  of  the  prevalent  unrest,  that  something  should  be  done  to 
terrorize  the  people  into  submission. 

India  and  the  British  authorities  were  in  conflict !  Some  three 
hundred  years  before  the  British  had  first  penetrated  India. 
Under  the  British  East  India  Company  a  succession  of  able  gov- 

1For  an  account  of  this  massacre,  cf.  Moon,  Parker  T.,  Imperialism , 
pp.  305,  306,  and  the  Nation ,  vol.  110,  p.  121. 


5 


ernors,  after  having  expelled  the  French  during  the  Seven  Years 
War,  gradually  extended  British  control.  The  real  founder  of 
the  British  Empire  in  India  was  Robert  Clive,  governor  of  Bengal. 
In  1757  he  defeated  at  Plassey  the  enormous  army  mustered 
against  him  by  the  local  nawab ,  thus  establishing  English  prestige 
on  a  firm  basis.  Capable  successors,  such  as  Warren  Hastings, 
Lord  Cornwallis,  the  marquess  of  Wellesley,  brother  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  the  marquess  of  Hastings,  and  Lord  Dalhousie 
subdued  native  princes,  and  seized  territories  and  concessions  until 
in  1849  most  of  India  was  under  British  control.  In  1857  the 
great  Sepoy  rebellion  broke  out  and  for  a  time,  threatened  to 
destroy  every  vestige  of  British  influence  in  India.  But  troops 
were  rushed  from  England,  the  country  was  soon  reconquered, 
and  the  rebellion  was  put  down.  In  1858  the  control  of  the  East 
India  Company,  which  had  for  the  past  eighty-five  years  been 
gradually  curtailed,  was  taken  away  and  India  was  transferred 
to  the  Crown.  In  1877  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress 
of  India  by  the  astute  Disraeli.  During  these  early  years  the 
British  had  fought  with  separate  rulers  in  a  much  divided  India. 
But  during  the  past  fifty  years  there  has  gradually  grown  up, 
due  largely  to  foreign  influence  and  oppression,  a  national  con¬ 
sciousness  which  has  increasingly  bound  the  peoples  of  India 
into  a  unity,  at  least  in  their  desire  to  be  rid  of  foreign  rule. 
During  the  World  War  India  as  a  whole  remained  loyal  to  Great 
Britain,  hoping  that  thereby  she  might  win  a  large  measure  of 
independence.  Some  concessions  were  made,  but  these  Dft  the 
actual  control  of  the  country  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Pro¬ 
tests  and  outbreaks  occurred,  some  of  which  were  met  by  severe 
reprisals.  Ghandi  arose,  impressed  an  ideal  of  unity  and  hope 
on  his  people,  and  then  his  influence  gradually  waned,  leaving 
the  control  of  the  movement  for  self-government  in  the  hands 
of  less  peaceful  leaders.  And  so  there  is  conflict  in  India  .  .  . 
conflict. 

In  fact  the  whole  world  seems  to  be  in  conflict.  We  need 
not  delve  far  into  the  history  of  the  past ;  they  are  here ;  numer¬ 
ous  conflicts, — real,  and  contemporary.  To  quote  a  competent 
observer,1  “If  we  consider  this  landscape  of  uneasiness,  Eastern 
and  Western,  national  and  international,  religious,  racial,  and 
economic,  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  there  must  be 
grave  defects  in  either  the  education  or  the  motives  of  statesmen 
responsible  for  the  direction  of  public  affairs”.  Surely  here  is 
a  challenge  to  our  best  thinking  and  noblest  endeavor. 

XP.  W.  Wilson  in  the  New  York  Times ,  September  11,  1927. 


6 


A  NEWSPAPER  STUDY. 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  is  devoted  to  an  examination 
and  consideration  of  the  conflict  situations  presented  in  only  two 
issues  of  the  New  York  Times;  those  of  September  11th  and 
12th,  1927.  If  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  were  merely  to  help 
the  student  to  realize  the  extent  of  conflict,  it  might  be  insuffi¬ 
cient  merely  to  list  the  news  items  which  are  included.  But  as 
the  Amritsar  massacre  was  merely  an  instance  of  a  complicated 
situation,  the  roots  of  which  lay  deep  in  the  history  of  the  past 
and  the  psychology  of  man,  so  each  item  presented  is  to  be  un¬ 
derstood  only  in  the  light  of  the  larger  and  often  world  situation 
of  which  it  is  an  expression.  Therefore  after  each  grouping  is 
appended  a  list  of  suggestions,  the  careful  consideration  of 
which  may  help  make  clear  these  larger  implications.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  student  may  thereby  be  assisted  in  learning  to  see  the 
significance  of  the  events  which  are  transpiring  about  us,  so 
that  when  he  reads  of  them  he  may  get,  not  merely  information 
but  understanding.  Here  is  what  we  find  in  the  Times  of  Sep¬ 
tember  llth-12th. 

I.  ECONOMIC  CONFLICTS. 

A.  Russia  and  the  Capitalist-Communist  Controversy.  Al¬ 
though  the  conflict  suggested  by  the  name  of  Russia  involves 
many  complications  and  considerations,  its  crux  is  undoubtedly 
economic. 

1.  “Red  Menace  Wanes”  in  France  as  the  American  Legion 
celebration  approaches,  according  to  a  headline. 

2.  “France  to  Expel  Soviet  Ambassador”,  we  are  assured  in 
a  headline,  although  the  article  which  it  surmounts  con¬ 
veys  the  information  that  final  action  has  not  been  taken 
by  the  French  Cabinet  in  the  absence  of  M.  Briand. 

3.  “British  Labor  Rids  Party  of  Red  Tinge.” 

4.  “Sees  Freemasonry  Allied  with  Reds.”  This  new  Russian 
ally  is  discovered  in  France  by  M.  Coty,  a  manufacturer 
of  perfumes ! 

5.  “British  Say  Reds  Seek  Turco-Persian  Break.” 

6.  “English  Reds  Seen  as  Factor  in  Break”  between  the 
Trades  Union  Congress  at  Edinburgh  and  the  All-Rus¬ 
sian  Council  of  Labor  Unions. 

7.  “Red  Sisters  March  wiffi  Soviet  Youth”  we  are  told  in 
the  headline  of  an  article  on  the  eagerness  with  which 
Russian  boys  and  girls  play  war. 


7 


8.  “Another  Anglo-Russian  Break”  is  the  subject  of  an  edi¬ 
torial  on  the  11th  in  which  we  are  told  that  the  rupture 
between  British  and  Russian  trade  unions  deprives  the 
latter  of  their  only  European  friend. 

9.  “Oil  Men  Doubtful  of  Relief  in  Russia.”  The  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey  purchased  a  controlling 
share  in  the  Nobel  Company  in  Russia  after  the  nation¬ 
alization  of  oil  by  the  Russian  government,  and  is  now 
doubtful  of  its  ability  to  gain  possession.  (Shouldn’t 
wonder.) 

10.  On  the  12th  we  are  told  that  Poincare,  in  a  telephone  con¬ 
versation  with  Briand,  assured  the  latter  that  the  cabinet 
had  taken  no  action  on  the  case  of  the  Soviet  Ambassador 
in  Paris.  (See  item  2  above.) 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  Someone  has  defined  “Bolshevism”  as  “anything  you  don’t 
like  and  have  no  valid  arguments  against”.  Is  this  a  reli¬ 
able  description  of  the  way  in  which  the  term  is  fre¬ 
quently  used?  What  is  the  legitimate  meaning  of  the 
term?  Of  Communism? 

2.  What  is  the  psychological  effect  of  the  frequent  use  of  the 
term  “Red’  (six  times  in  the  headlines  quoted  above)  ? 

3.  Without  attempting  either  to  attack  or  to  defend  it,  con¬ 
sider  the  causes  for  communism,  attempting,  not  to  judge 
it  but  to  understand  it.  Do  the  same  for  the  prejudice 
against  “radicalism”. 

4.  Read  chapter  23,  “The  Poison  Gas  Attack ”  in  The  Rus¬ 
sian  Soviet  Republic,  in  which  Professor  Ross  lists  forty- 
nine  fairy-tales  and  falsehoods  spread  by  the  foes  of 
Russia.  See  the  Nation  for  August  31,  1927,  on  “A  Forger 
of  Soviet  ‘Documents’ !”  Do  you  think  that  the  Bolshe¬ 
vists  have  as  much  right  to  attempt  to  undermine  the 
United  States  Government  as  the  foes  of  Soviet  Russia 
have  to  attempt  to  undermine  and  discredit  it?  If  so, 
are  those  who  make  such  attacks  against  the  “Reds”  in 
the  same  class  with  the  Bolshevists  ?  What  shall  we  say 
of  those  who  encouraged  and  supported  armed  movements 
against  the  Soviet  government? 

5.  Consider  the  significance  of  such  a  statement  as  that  of 
Upton  Close  in  The  Revolt  of  Asia:  “The  historian  of  a 
century  hence  will  be  no  more  concerned  as  to  which  of 


8 


the  European  nations  was  the  technical  victor  (of  the 
World  War)  than  is  the  present  historian  as  to  which  of 
the  city  states  of  Greece  won  the  Peloponnesian  War,  but 
he  will  be  tremendously  concerned  with  the  fact  that  by 
throwing  Russia  back  into  Asia,  it  completely  changed 
the  balance  of  power  of  the  races  and  the  continents,  and 
ushered  in  the  ‘end  of  the  white  man’s  world’.” 

6.  For  the  further  study  of  Russia: 

a.  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  July  1927. 

b.  Ross,  E.  A.,  The  Russian  Soviet  Republic .  Century 
Co.,  1923. 

c.  Laidler,  Harry  W.,  Roads  to  Freedom,  Ch.  IV.  League 
for  Industrial  Democracy,  1925 — Ten  Cents. 

d.  Strong,  Anna  Louise,  The  First  Time  in  History .  Boni 
and  Liveright,  1924. 

B.  The  Interallied  Debts.  A  cartoon  depicts  the  indiffer¬ 
ent  attitude  of  the  French  and  the  American  soldier  toward  this 
economic  problem.  Further  reference  is  found  in  the  mention 
of  Count  Volpin,  Italian  Minister  of  Finance  who  headed  the 
Italian  Debt  Funding  Commission. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  The  total  amount  loaned  by  the  United  States  to  twenty 
different  countries  was  $10,338,000,000.  (See  Informa¬ 
tion  Service  of  the  Foreign  Policy  Association,  18  East 
41st  St.,  New  York  City,  March,  1927,  entitled  The  United 
States  and  the  War  Debts. 

2.  Debt  funding  agreements  have  been  negotiated  with  thir¬ 
teen  debtor  countries  involving  varying  degrees  of  cancel¬ 
lation  by  means  of  low  interest  charges.  75%  of  the  debt 
of  Italy  was  cancelled  in  this  way. 

3.  What  have  been  the  effects  upon  international  relations 
of  these  debts?  What  are  the  reasons  for  and  against 
the  cancellation  of  the  principal  of  these  debts? 

4.  For  further  information  on  the  debt  question  see 

a.  International  Conciliation,  May  1927,  entitled  The  In¬ 
terallied  Debts.  Published  by  the  Carnegie  Endow¬ 
ment  for  International  Peace,  44  Portland  St.,  Wor¬ 
cester,  Mass.  Contains  full  bibliography.  Five  Cents. 

b.  Guy,  C.  L.,  Debts  and  Our  Allies  in  the  Century  Maga¬ 
zine  for  September,  1927. 


9 


C.  Conflicts  between  Capitalists  and  Workers.  These  will 
be  considered  more  fully  in  chapter  IV  on  The  Economic  Order. 
Conflict  situations  of  this  nature  reported  in  the  two  issues  of 
the  New  York  Times  studies  were: 

1.  Breton  sardine  fishers  go  out  on  strike.  Difficulties  said  to 
involve  the  tariff  problem. 

2.  British  strike  cuts  drink  bill. 

3.  Left  wing  revives  war  in  suit  trade. 

4.  Truckmen  ratify  strike  agreement  in  New  York. 

5.  Federal  judge  restricts  picketing  in  Steubenville,  Ohio,  to 
American  citizens. 

16.  “Sees  a  Union  Drive  Against  Open  Shop”  heads  an  arti¬ 
cle  containing  a  letter  from  W.  H.  Barr,  President  of  the 
National  Founders  Association  warning  its  members 
against  the  activities  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
against  the  open  shop.  It  states  that  the  American  Plan 
Association  of  Cleveland  has  a  fund  of  two  million  dol¬ 
lars  raised  by  a  group  of  citizens  for  carrying  on  this 
fight  with  the  labor  unions. 1 

7.  British  Laborites  at  Edinburgh  in  heated  debate  over  pro¬ 
posal  for  cooperation  with  employers. 

8.  German  workers  are  reported  to  have  been  quiet  last  year, 
due  to  the  economic  crisis  and  unemployment.  Is  there  a 
subtle  implication  in  the  use  of  the  word  “quiet”  in  this 
connection  ? 

D.  The  Burden  of  Taxation.  “Increasing  Burden  of 
French  Taxation”  is  the  headline  of  an  article  which  states  that 
one-fourth  of  the  national  income  is  absorbed  by  taxation  today 
as  compared  with  one-sixth  in  1913.  This  condition  suggests 
the  cost  of  conflict — an  almost  universal  problem  in  our  post-war 
world.  Consider  in  this  connection  the  statement  of  Secretary 
Mellon  that  approximately  85%  of  our  total  national  budget  goes 
for  military  purposes. 

See  The  Problem  of  Armaments  by  Enock,  (Macmillan,  1923) 
for  a  full  statement  on  the  costs  of  armaments. 


Uhis  item  presents  an  important  conflict  situation  arising  over  the 
question  of  the  open  shop.  More  information  concerning  the  two  associa¬ 
tions  mentioned  is  to  be  found  in  Professional  Patriots,  edited  by  Norman 
Hapgood  (cf.  below,  ch.  IX). 


10 


E.  The  Franco-American  Tariff  Conflict.  On  September 
11th  and  12th  several  articles  present  the  threat  of  a  tariff  war 
between  the  United  States  and  France.  American  protests 
against  French  rates  have  been  made,  and  a  proposal  for  a  most 
favored  nation  treaty  with  France  has  been  suggested  by  the 
United  States.  Such  a  treaty  would  give  the  United  States  the 
benefit  of  the  low  rates  fixed  in  a  recent  trade  agreement  be¬ 
tween  France  and  Germany. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  The  effects  of  high  tariff  rates  upon  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  with  Europe. 

2.  Is  the  tariff  primarily  for  the  protection  of  “infant”  in¬ 
dustries,  or  does  it  “protect”  the  older  and  well-established 
industries  as  well?  ?  Is  it  true  that  the  wage  rate  in  in¬ 
dustries  protected  by  tariffs  is  often  lower  than  that  in 
unprotected  industries  ? 

3.  What  was  the  connection  between  “tariff”  and  the  Civil 
War?  (See  Beard,  The  Rise  of  American  Civilization, 
Ch.  XVII.) 

4.  Read  The  False  Peace-Protectionism  Means  Endless  Con¬ 
flict  by  Lambert.  Distributed  by  the  International  Free 
Trade  League,  38  St.  Botolph  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

F.  Advertising.  Every  great  newspaper  or  magazine  de¬ 
votes  a  large  proportion  of  its  space  to  advertisements.  Mr. 
Edward  Bok,  writing  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  of  October,  1923, 
estimated  that  the  total  annual  outlay  for  advertising  in  the 
United  States  is  $1,284,000,000. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  Is  it  true  that  “advertising  is  the  anti-social  weapon  of 
competing  groups  in  their  conflict  with  each  other  for 
trade”  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  that  in  certain  industries,  the  cost  of  selling  a 
commodity  is  greater  than  the  cost  of  producing  it?  What 
proportion  of  advertising  merely  cancels  itself  by  present¬ 
ing  competing  brands  of  the  same  commodities  to  the 
public  ? 

3.  How  should  an  article  be  chosen;  on  the  basis  of  what  its 
makers  claim  for  it,  or  on  the  basis  of  actual  worth?  To 
what  extent  does  advertising  prevent  the  choice  of  the 
best  product? 


11 


4.  Why  is  advertising  unnecessary  for  the  sale  of  potatoes, 
but  indispensable  for  the  sale  of  patent-medicines?  Is  it 
true  that  the  more  useless  a  product  is,  the  more  it  must 
be  advertised? 

5.  Study  The  Tragedy  of  Waste  by  Stuart  Chase  (Macmil¬ 
lan,  1925)  chapter  VII. 

II.  POLITICAL  CONFLICTS. 

A.  China.  Nationalism,  Imperialism,  Racial  Conflicts, 
Capitalism,  Communism,  and  Militarism  are  all  involved  in  the 
conflict  which  rages  in  China.  Is  not  China  a  focal  point  for 
almost  all  of  the  major  conflicts  of  our  generation?  State  con¬ 
cretely  and  in  some  detail  how  the  “isms”  mentioned  above  are 
related  to  the  present  situation  in  China.  Suggest  other  phases 
of  this  conflict. 

The  copies  of  the  Times  examined  announce: 

1.  The  fall  of  Swatow. 

2.  The  bombardment  for  a  month  of  a  mission  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Shantung, — reported  by  a  missionary. 

3.  The  rise  of  a  new  civil  head  of  the  Nationalist  Party,  Mr. 
Wang  Ching-wei. 

B.  Germany.  It  is  now  apparent  that  the  Treaty  of  Ver¬ 
sailles  not  only  left  many  conflicts  unsolved,  but  created  many 
more.  Consider  William  Allen  White’s  characterization  of  the 
World  War  as  “a  futile  war  followed  by  a  punitive  peace”. 

In  the  Times  we  read  that: 

1.  “Germany  Dreams  of  Might  Restored”. 

2.  Germany  is  “dissatisfied  with  League  meeting”. 

3.  American  officials  doubt  Germany’s  willingness  to  accept 
compulsory  arbitration  of  all  disputes  in  adhering  to  the 
Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice. 

4.  Austria  is,  from  the  economic  standpoint,  unwisely  cut 
off  from  union  with  Germany  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

C.  Latin-America  and  the  United  States.  From  the  stand¬ 
point  of  the  United  States  this  conflict  is  of  major  importance. 
Evidences  of  this  conflict  are  clearly  discernible  in  the  Times 
reports  that : 

(Note:  Because  of  its  unusual  importance  in  present  day  conflicts, 
fuller  consideration  will  be  given  to  China  in  the  next  chapter.) 


12 


1.  Panama  has  petitioned  the  League  of  Nations  to  settle  the 
question  of  sovereignty  over  the  Canal  Zone. 

2.  Sandino  wrecks  the  gold  mines  in  the  region  of  Nicara¬ 
gua  under  his  control.  As  a  result,  “Sandino  is  described 
by  the  mine  owner  as  a  desperado,  cruel  and  very  forcible. 
He  has  trained  four  boys  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years 
of  age,  Mr.  Butler  says,  to  act  as  his  body  guard  and  kill 
at  his  command.  These  boys  are  pictured  as  absolutely 
cold  blooded,  ‘thinking  no  more  of  shooting  a  man  than 
cracking  a  mule  with  a  whip’.”  Is  there  a  familiar  tone 
in  this  “brutality  picture”.  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Butler 
will  file  a  claim  with  the  Department  of  State. 

D.  Armaments.  If  armaments  are  the  most  effective  in¬ 
struments  of  peace,  as  some  believe,  they  should  be  considered 
under  the  sections  on  agencies  of  cooperation.  However  we  will 
venture  to  discuss  them  here. 

1.  In  discussing  the  failure  of  the  Geneva  Conference  on 
Naval  Armaments,  Mr.  P.  W.  Wilson  writes,  “Where  na¬ 
tions  desire  cooperation,  we  see  an  insistence  on  what 
must  result  in  friction”.  Is  the  writer  justified  in  making 
a  distinction  between  nations  desiring  cooperation  and  gov¬ 
ernment  representatives  insisting  on  policies  productive  of 
conflict?  Were  the  major  aims  of  the  Geneva  Conference 
lost  in  the  technicalities  and  ambitions  of  the  experts? 

2.  In  reference  to  our  own  military  equipment  we  learn  that: 

a.  Our  naval  planes  are  held  to  be  the  equal  of  any. 

b.  Our  new  army  dreadnaught  of  the  air  carries  a  one- 
ton  bomb  “powerful  enough  to  wreck  a  small  town”. 

Does  this  information  give  you  a  sense  of  security? 

E.  The  Balkans.  The  cauldron  of  Europe  is  still  boiling. 

1.  Headlines  announce:  “Terrorism  Charges  Revived  in  Ru¬ 
mania”.  (This  refers  to  the  treatment  of  political  foes.) 

2.  Mr.  P.  W.  Wilson  reminds  us  of  the  Italian- Jugoslavian 
rivalry  in  the  Balkans,  involving  Albania,  Fiume,  and  the 
Adriatic. 

III.  RACIAL  CONFLICTS. 

A.  Race  Riot.  From  Berlin,  Maryland,  comes  the  news 
that  on  the  11th,  300  whites  and  negroes  rioted  for  three  hours. 
Twenty-two  negroes  are  reported  injured,  three  of  them  seri- 


13 


ously.  Nothing  is  said  about  injuries  to  the  whites.  Berlin  is 
reported  to  have  a  population  of  1,100  whites  and  900  negroes. 

B.  Palestine.  Mention  is  made  of  the  conflict  between  the 
Arabs  and  the  Jews  in  Palestine;  a  conflict  which  is  both  politi¬ 
cal  and  religious. 

IV.  RELIGIOUS  CONFLICTS. 

A.  Ireland.  Several  articles  consider  the  conflict  in  Ire¬ 
land,  one  important  phase  of  which  is  religious. 

B.  India.  Mention  is  made  of  the  hostility  between  the 
Moslems  and  the  Hindus. 

C.  Denominational  Divisions,  which  the  religious  news 
page  sets  clearly  before  the  reader,  do  not  present  to  the  world 
that  example  of  harmony  and  cooperation  which  is  so  sadly 
needed  today.  Groups  within  the  churches  are  frequently  in 
conflict  with  each  other,  as  witness  the  Modernist-Fundamen¬ 
talist  Controversy. 

THE  OTHER  SIDE. 

Perhaps  we  weary  of  hearing  of  conflict,  and  certainly  there 
is  another  side,  not  as  conspicuous,  but  just  as  real  and  perhaps 
of  even  greater  significance  for  the  future.  In  these  same  issues 
of  the  Times  we  find  among  other  indications  of  the  spirit  of 
cooperation,  reports  concerning: 

1.  The  League  of  Nations.  The  League  may  be  weak,  and 
its  imperfections  real,  but  the  importance  of  the  functions 
which  it  performs  and  its  influence  for  peace  are  far 
greater  than  many  realize.  We  read: 

a.  “League  in  Tears  as  Briand  Pleads  for  World  Peace”. 
What  must  be  the  effect  of  such  an  appeal  from  the 
leading  statesman  of  one  of  the  most  prominent  and 
vindictive  belligerents?  What  more  important  service 
could  be  rendered  the  cause  of  peace  than  that  of  pro¬ 
viding  opportunity  for  stimulating,  expressing,  and  fo¬ 
cusing  the  moral  sentiment  of  the  world? 

b.  An  article  suggests  the  possibilities  for  growth  in  the 
League.  Another  states  that  the  trend  within  the 
League  is  toward  arbitration.  At  least  significant 
statements  of  opinion. 

(Note:  Racial  conflicts  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in  Chapter  V.) 

(Note:  See  Chapter  VI  on  Religion  and  Peace.) 


14 


c.  A  $2,000,000  gift  for  a  library  for  the  League  is  an¬ 
nounced. 

d.  Stresemann  declares  that  in  adhering  to  the  Perma¬ 
nent  Court  of  International  Justice,  Germany  accepts 
compulsory  arbitration. 

2.  It  is  reported  that  Russian  refugees  make  cultural  contri¬ 
butions  in  Turkey.  Do  national  and  racial  fusions  pro¬ 
duce  richness  of  culture? 

3.  “Religious  Accord  Found.”  Twenty  Brooklyn  men  of  dif¬ 
ferent  faiths  hold  monthly  meetings — seven  Jews,  seven 
Protestants,  and  six  Catholics. 

4.  International  Association  of  Journalists  holds  its  sessions 
in  Geneva. 

5.  British  strikers  are  helped  by  foreign  unions,  Germany 
leading  in  contributions  for  the  striking  mine  workers,  and 
Sweden  in  contributions  for  the  General  Strike  of  May, 
1926. 

6.  Applied  science  continues  to  increase  the  possibilities  of 
cooperation  through  its  achievements  in  aviation. 

7.  News-gathering  and  printing  itself  is  a  remarkable  achieve¬ 
ment  in  cooperation. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  CHAPTER  I. 

1.  Students  who  have  been  discussing  the  problems  centering 
about  War,  Race,  and  Industry  in  their  recent  conferences 
have  been  studying,  not  a  fictitious  world,  but  a  very  real 
one. 

2.  “The  World  as  It  Is”  is  indeed  a  world  of  conflict,  the  re¬ 
solving  of  which  is  perhaps  the  greatest  task  confronting 
mankind. 

3.  These  conflicts  are  the  expressions  and  evidences  of  deeply- 
rooted  and  highly  complicated  conditions  and  situations. 
Neither  the  best  of  intentions  nor  even  the  most  sincere 
and  strenuous  efforts  will  avail  unless  this  effort  is  intelli¬ 
gently  directed  by  those  who  have  become  thoroughly  fa¬ 
miliar  with  the  situations  with  which  they  are  dealing. 

4.  Our  first  responsibility  for  the  “world  as  it  is”  is  the  moral 
obligation  to  become  intelligently  informed  concerning  it. 

(Note:  The  two  issues  of  the  New  York  Times  in  which  all  of  the 
above  items  were  included  were  selected  not  because  of  the  unusual 
number  of  conflict  situations  which  they  reported,  but  because  they 
were  the  most  recent  which  could  be  examined  before  placing  this 
outline  in  the  hands  of  the  printer.) 

15 


CHAPTER  II. 


AREAS  OF  CONFLICT. 

I.  CHINA  vs.  IMPERIALISM. 

Item  I:  Did  you  read  the  following  dispatch  in  an  obscure 
corner  of  your  paper? 

September  12 — (Associated  Press  Dispatch)  Shanghai: 
“The  United  States  gunboat  Luzon,  one  of  six  similar 
crafts  which  are  to  comprise  the  new  American  Yangtze 
river  patrol,  was  launched  from  the  Kiangnan  dockyards 
on  the  outskirts  of  Shanghai  today.  The  Luzon,  of  650 
tons,  draws  but  five  feet  of  water.  Her  keel  was  laid  last 
March.  She  is  expected  to  be  commissioned  in  December. 
Completion  of  the  fleet,  which  will  cost  a  total  of  $5,000,- 
000,  and  of  which  three  units  now  have  been  launched,  is 
set  for  next  March.” 

Item  II:  Near  the  end  of  March,  1927,  the  British  and  the 
American  fleets,  acting  jointly,  bombarded  the  city  of  Nan¬ 
king  shortly  after  it  had  been  entered  by  the  Nationalist 
troops  from  the  South.  The  avowed  intention  of  the  bom¬ 
bardment  was  the  protection  of  British  and  American 
citizens  said  to  be  in  danger  from  the  Chinese  Nationalist 
troops. 

Item  III:  On  May  30,  1925,  the  British  captain  of  police  in 
Shanghai  ordered  his  men  to  fire  upon  a  crowd  which  was 
composed  chiefly  of  unarmed  Chinese  students.  Many  of 
them  were  killed  and  wounded.  The  students  were  pa¬ 
rading  in  the  International  Settlement  in  protest  against 
the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  fellow  students  who  in 
turn  had  been  demonstrating  in  behalf  of  workmen  in 
foreign-owned  factories.  The  police  captain  ordered  the 
demonstrators  who  had  gathered  outside  the  police  sta¬ 
tion  to  disperse.  Instead  they  rushed  the  station ;  and 
the  officer  gave  the  command  to  fire  to  kill. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  this  conflict  situation  that  manifests 
itself  in  the  incidents  cited  above?  What  are  the  elements  that 
go  to  explain  the  actions  of  hostility  on  both  sides? 


16 


THE  ECONOMIC  PHASE. 


1.  Industrialism  appears  in  China — foreign  capital — in¬ 
tolerable  conditions  of  labor  in  factories. 

2.  The  growth  of  a  Chinese  labor  movement. 

3.  Students  maintain  their  traditional  position  in  China  by 
active  participation  in  public  affairs — in  this  instance 
sympathetic  demonstrations  for  strikers. 

4.  Foreign  investments  reach  through  the  whole  of  China’s 
economic  life : — railways,  manufactures,  banks,  trading 
houses. 

5.  Foreign  controlled  customs  service. 

6.  Chinese  seek  tariff  autonomy — rate  now  fixed  at  5  per 
cent  by  foreign  powers. 

7.  Concessions  obtained  by  powers  in  unilateral  treaties. 

8.  Territorial  aggression  through  a  whole  century  arouses 
the  indignation  of  Chinese. 

9.  The  Consortium — foreign  control  of  China’s  finances. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  PHASE. 

1.  In  early  days  Chinese  were  hostile  to  intercourse  with 
foreigners. 

2.  The  Opium  War  and  the  Treaty  of  Nanking  (1842) 
with  provisions  for  treaty  ports,  extraterritorial  privi¬ 
leges,  tariff  rate  of  5  per  cent,  and  the  cession  in  per¬ 
petuity,  of  the  island  of  Hongkong. 

3.  In  1844  the  United  States  obtained  similar  concessions 
under  the  doctrine  of  the  “most  favored  nation.”  “The 
Americans  crawled  behind  British  guns,”  said  the  lat¬ 
ter  tauntingly. 

4.  The  Tai  Ping  Rebellion  put  down  by  the  Powers  under 
the  generalship  of  “Chinese”  Gordon. 

5.  The  Treaty  of  Tientsin  (1858)  granted  foreigners  fur¬ 
ther  concessions  and  forbade  any  interference  with  the 
preaching  of  Christianity.  The  latter  provision  is 
known  as  the  “toleration  clause.” 

6.  In  1894  at  the  end  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  China 
ceded  Formosa  and  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  to  Japan. 
Japan  was  blocked  in  her  intention  to  take  Port  Arthur 
by  a  protest  from  France,  Germany  and  Russia. 


17 


7.  Near  the  end  of  the  century  Germany,  England,  France 
and  Russia  took  leases  on  important  ports  and  areas  in 
China. 

8.  The  Boxer  Uprising, — a  manifestation  of  anti-foreign- 
ism  and  patriotic  protest, — occurred  in  1900.  Heavy  in¬ 
demnities  were  imposed  by  the  Powers  and  the  Inter¬ 
national  Settlement  of  Shanghai  was  established  on 
Chinese  soil. 

9.  The  United  States  announced  the  Open  Door  Policy  to 
prevent  further  territorial  aggression  in  China. 

10.  The  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance  of  1902,  aimed  at  Russia, 
had  important  consequences  for  China.  The  Russo- 
Japanese  War  of  1904-05  was  a  staggering  blow  at  the 
prestige  of  Western  Powers  in  the  Orient. 

11.  The  World  War  brought  the  Japanese  “Monroe  Doc¬ 
trine/’  and  the  famous  “Twenty  One  Demands”  with 
China’s  effective  boycott  as  a  reply ;  and  the  question 
of  Shantung  which  caused  bitter  debates  at  Versailles. 

12.  The  revolution  in  Russia  brought  a  change  of  attitude 
toward  China  in  a  doctrine  of  equality  which  greatly  in¬ 
creased  Russian  prestige  in  China.  The  long-standing 
Anglo-Russian  rivalry  thus  found  a  new  stage. 

13.  Special  privileges,  concessions,  etc.,  all  require  the  con¬ 
stant  presence  of  foreign  patrols  in  Chinese  waters. 

14.  A  phase  of  “racialism”  still  found  among  some  Western 
advocates  of  “the  white  man’s  burden”  in  the  Orient. 

15.  The  unavoidable  tenseness  produced  by  these  incidents 
leads  easily  to  conflict  involving  violence,  as  reported 
above. 


THE  NATIONALIST  PHASE. 

1.  The  Revolution  of  1911  overthrew  the  Manchus. 

2.  Struggle  for  a  republican  form  of  government  under  the 
leadership  of  Sun  Yat'  Sen.  The  appearance  of  the 
Kuomintang,  a  Chinese  nationalist  movement. 

3.  Era  of  Yuan  Shih-K’ai  (1914-16). 

4.  North  vs.  South  (1916-24). 

5.  The  spread  of  democratic  ideas  from  the  West. 

6  The  “renaissance”  affects  the  whole  structure  of  Chi¬ 
nese  life. 


18 


7.  Increased  facilities  for  communication  aid  the  growth 
of  nationalism. 

8.  Aggression  of  Western  Imperialism,  especially  any  re¬ 
sort  to  terrorism,  produces  nationalistic  sentiment. 

WHAT  MIGHT  HAVE  BEEN! 

“But  there  were  two  alternative  paths  which  Europe  might 
have  followed  in  the  process  of  ‘opening  up’  China.  The  first 
was  the  path  of  economic  exploitation,  pure  and  simple  .  .  . 
The  other  was  the  path  of  cooperation  rather  than  of  ex¬ 
ploitation  .  .  . 

“It  will  be  argued  that  the  second  alternative  was  impos¬ 
sibly  utopian.  But  it  was  not ;  it  was  actually  tried  with  suc¬ 
cess  in  a  limited  field  .  .  .  The  European  customs  officials 
considered  it  their  duty  to  build  up  for  the  Chinese  Govern¬ 
ment  a  service  which  would  protect  the  legitimate  interests 
and  the  rights  of  the  Chinese  people.  Their  efforts  were  met' 
with  hostility  and  opposition  both  from  the  foreign  traders 
and  the  foreign  consuls,  but  they  were  successful,  and,  while 
everywhere  else  domestic  corruption  and  foreign  exploitation 
were  bringing  ruin  on  China,  in  the  customs  administration 
the  Chinese  were  being  consistently  helped  to  protect  their 
own  economic  interests. 

“These  facts  show  that  it  was  quite  possible  for  Europe 
to  cooperate  with  the  Chinese  in  such  a  way  as  to  adapt 
Chinese  organization  and  government  to  the  necessities  of  the 
modern  economic  world.  No  one  to-day  will  deny  that  the  co¬ 
operation  of  East  and  West  in  the  customs  administration 
ultimately  benefited  both  China  and  Europe.  But  the  experi¬ 
ment  was  not  repeated ”  Leonard  Woolf :  Economic  Imperi¬ 
alism,  pp.  84-88). 

II.  THE  EXPANSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  expansion  of  the  United  States  in  the  western  hemis¬ 
phere  has  been  fraught  with  conflict.  Trace  in  detail  the 
record  of  that  expansion ! 

1.  What  is  the  crux  of  the  strained  relations  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States? 

2.  What  is  the  gist  of  the  Nicaraguan  matter? 

3.  How  and  why  was  the  Panama  Zone  obtained? 


19 


4.  What  was  the  story  of  the  acquisition  of  Hawaii? 

5.  How  did  Lincoln,  Grant  and  Woodrow  Wilson  charac¬ 
terize  the  Mexican  War  of  1848? 

6.  How  does  the  Platt  Amendment  affect  the  status  of  Cuba? 

7.  What  form  of  government  existed  in  the  Virgin  Islands 
before  the  United  States  purchased  them  from  Den¬ 
mark?  What  form  of  government  have  they  now? 

8.  Under  what  circumstances  was  Haiti  occupied  by  U. 
S.  Marines? 

9.  Has  the  Monroe  Doctrine  undergone  distinct  changes 
in  interpretation? 

10.  What  change  in  the  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  Europe  has  taken  place  since  the  beginning  of  the 
World  War? 

III.  Other  areas  of  conflict  are  too  numerous  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  in  any  detail  in  this  outline.  They  are  merely  sug¬ 
gested  in  order  that  the  student  may  study  them  fully  as  time 
allows : 

A.  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean, — involving  an  increasing 
tenseness  in  relations  with  France ;  an  avowed  policy  of 
expansion  and  colonization  in  Africa ;  friction  with 
Jugo-Slavia  over  Fiume  and  the  Adriatic;  and  influ¬ 
ences  in  Albania  and  other  Balkan  States. 

B.  Russia  and  the  Capitalistic  Powers, — The  Anglo-Rus- 
sian  rivalry  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  inter¬ 
national  relations  of  the  19th  century.  It  is  now  con¬ 
tinued  in  a  new  form.  Russian  influence  is  competing 
with,  and  probably  with  success,  British  influence  in 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  Tibet  and  China.  The  Russian 
conflict  not  only  involves  Great  Britain  but  all  the 
leading  industrial  countries. 

C.  France  has  her  serious  troubles  in  administering  her 
Syrian  mandate,  in  exploiting  her  North  African  Em¬ 
pire,  and  in  maintaining  the  most  friendly  relations 
with  her  European  neighbors,  Italy,  Germany,  and  Eng¬ 
land.  The  tariff  and  the  war  debt  questions  with  the 
United  States  are  still  unsolved. 

D.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  conflict  in 
British  India.  Elsewhere  Great  Britain  is  experiencing 
international  friction  that  might  easily  lead  to  conflict — 


20 


in  Egypt,  in  Mesopotamia,  and  in  the  naval  question 
with  the  United  States. 

E.  In  the  Near  East  Turkey  has  broken  away  from  Euro¬ 
pean  domination,  but  there  are  still  questions  unsettled 
in  her  relations  with  foreign  peoples  and  powers.  The 
rich  oil  resources  in  the  Mesopotamian  Valley  are  cause 
of  conflict. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  What  do  you  consider  the  chief  cause  of  conflict  in 
the  modern  world?  How  does  this  compare  with  the 
past? 

2.  Is  a  philosophy  of  ultimate  values  expressed  or  implied 
by  the  “things”  over  which  men  contend? 

3.  What  countries  or  areas  are  comparatively  free  from 
conflict?  Why? 

4.  Is  it  becoming  easier  to  isolate  conflicts?  Why?  What 
direct  or  indirect  connections  can  you  trace  between 
the  place  where  you  live  and  the  principal  danger  zones 
of  the  world? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Close,  Upton:  The  Revolt  of  Asia ,  Putnam,  1927. 

Hutchinson,  Paul:  What  and  Why  in  China ,  Willett,  Clark 
&  Colby,  1927. 

Ross,  E.  A.:  The  Russian  Soviet  Republic,  The  Century 
Co.,  1923. 

Inman,  S.  G. :  Problems  in  P an- Americanism,  Doran,  1921. 
Beals,  Carleton:  Mexico,  Huebsch,  1923. 

Beard,  C.  A.  &  Mary  R. :  The  Rise  of  American  Civiliza¬ 
tion,  2  vols.,  Macmillan,  1927. 

Moon,  P.  T. :  Imperialism  and  World  Politics,  Macmillan, 
1926. 

Earle,  Edward  M.:  Turkey,  The  Great  Powers,  and  The 
Bagdad  Railway,  Macmillan,  1923. 

Hayes,  C.  J.  H. :  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern 
Europe,  2  vols,  Macmillan,  1916. 

Gibbons,  H.  A.:  Introduction  to  World  Politics,  Century, 
1922. 

Gibbons,'  H.  A. :  America’s  Place  in  the  World,  Century, 
1924. 


21 


CHAPTER  III. 

NATIONALISM. 

I.  NATIONALISM  IN  EUROPE. 

Nationalism  shaped  the  political  destinies  of  Europe  from 
1848  to  1871.  In  saying  this,  the  danger  of  too  mechanically 
“periodizing”  history  is  recognized;  for  at  no  time  in  the  life  of 
a  continent  or  people  are  the  historical  forces  few  and  simple. 
Periods  do  not  begin  and  end  with  abruptness ;  they  always  root 
deeply  in  the  past,  and  require  for  their  interpretation  the  fullest 
possible  account  of  their  antecedents. 

II.  NATIONALISM  AND  STEAM  POWER. 

Just  prior  to  this  period  in  which  Nationalism  was  the  con¬ 
trolling  conception  in  political  thought  in  Europe,  steam  power 
became  a  revolutionary  force  in  industry.  “The  conception  of 
racial  or  national  supremacy,  based  upon  cultural  superiority  and 
military  and  financial  mastery,  originated  during  the  French  Rev¬ 
olution  and  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  was  developed  during  the 
period  from  1815  to  1848,  coincident  with  the  birth  of  the  sense 
of  nationality  in  Europe  and  the  introduction  of  steam  power  into 
industry  and  transportation.”  (Gibbons:  World  Politics,  p.  17.) 

III.  ECONOMIC  BASIS  OF  NATIONALISM. 

The  economic  basis  of  nationalism  at  once  becomes  apparent. 
The  following  steps  may  be  traced  in  this  development: 

1.  Steam  power  transforms  industry  and  greatly  increases 
production. 

2.  Steam  power  is  employed  for  transportation, — carrying 
raw  materials  to  the  factory  and  manufactured  products 
to  their  markets. 

3.  This  further  accelerates  industrialization  and  the  massing 
of  population  at  industrial  centers. 

4.  With  the  rise  of  the  great  industrial  powers,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  find  raw  materials  and  markets  away  from 
home,  hence  economic  imperialism  is  born. 


22 


5.  Economic  imperialism  brings  new  ideas  to  exploited  areas, 
and  under  the  none  too  scrupulous  reign  of  the  foreigners 
Nationalism  is  engendered  as  a  united  opposition  to  op¬ 
pression. 


IV.  NATIONALISM  IN  ASIA. 

Nationalism  would  eventually  have  come  to  Asia  as  it  came 
to  Europe, — through  forces  operating  within, — but  industrialism 
came  first  to  Europe  whence  influences  spread  to  hasten  the 
growth  of  nationalism  in  the  Orient  late  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  and  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  Twentieth. 

1.  Spender,  in  his  Changing  East,  quotes  a  distinguished 
Indian  of  the  older  generation  to  this  effect : 

“My  father  greatly  respected  England  and  he  spoke 
with  great  reverence  of  her  great  writers  and  statesmen — 
Milton,  Burke,  Byron,  Shelley,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Glad¬ 
stone  and  Bright.  As  children  we  were  brought  up  to 
read  your  writers  and  the  speeches  of  your  statesmen,  and 
we  found  them  generous  and  inspiring.  No  one  in  those 
days  talked  of  alien  rule.  .  .  . 

“And  then  a  change  came,  and  though  I  do  not  know 
the  reasons,  I  know  that  we  felt  it.  You  began  to  talk 
about  your  empire,  and  Disraeli  came  on  the  scene  boast¬ 
ing  of  your  power  and  your  greatness.  You  spoke  as  if 
you  were  masters  of  us  body  and  soul,  and  as  if  we  were 
children  and  barbarians.  .  .  . 

“This  went  on  more  and  more  all  through  the  last 
twenty  years  of  the  last  century.  All  your  orators  and 
all  your  newspapers  talked  of  Empire  and  Imperialism, 
and  the  necessity  of  expanding  and  exploiting  and  govern¬ 
ing  with  a  firm  hand.  I  don’t  know  what  was  behind  it 
all,  but  this  was  not  the  England  that  we  older  ones  had 
admired  and  respected,  and  we  withdrew  into  our  shells, 
while  young  men  came  forward  who  had  not  known  the 
old  England  and  were  resentful  of  the  new.  You  had  for¬ 
gotten  that  in  kindling  your  own  Nationalist  spirit  you 
were  bound  also  to  kindle  ours.  There  is  always  reaction 
to  every  political  movement,  and  our  Nationalism  was  the 
reaction  of  your  Imperialism.” 


23 


2.  After  the  Amritsar  tragedy  the  Viceroy  implored  Parlia¬ 
ment  to  take  immediate  steps  for  saving  British  rule  in  India. 
Among  other  things  he  said: 

“What  lies  behind  and  below  the  whole  of  the  political 
difficulties  in  India  is  a  spirit  of  Nationalism,  a  spirit  bred 
in  the  soil,  nurtured  by  our  methods  and  example,  and 
spreading  rapidly  through  all  ranks  and  classes  of  Indian 
society.  .  .  .  The  government  of  India  is  not  being 

dragged  at  the  tail  of  a  revolutionary  movement  by  a  neg¬ 
ligible  group  of  professional  agitators.” 

3.  To  what  extent  is  Nationalism  in  Japan,  the  Philippines, 
China,  Turkey,  and  Egypt  also  due  to  the  Imperialism  and  other 
contacts  of  Western  Powers  in  these  countries?  (For  the  recent 
history  of  political  movements  in  these  countries  see  Dutcher, 
The  Political  Awakening  of  the  East.) 

V.  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  NATIONALISM. 

1.  The  love  of  power  at  work  in  the  industrial  barons  and 
the  unscrupulous  political  leaders  of  the  new  machine  age  made 
them  ready  soil  for  the  planting  and  propagation  of  nationalistic 
conceptions.  They  discovered  that  the  masses  became  pliable  under 
the  powerful  sentiment  of  nationalism,  and  willingly  furthered 
their  selfish  interests  even  when  in  conflict  with  the  interests  of 
the  masses  themselves.  Give  examples  of  wars  in  which  the 
masses  had  nothing  to  gain  and  much  to  lose,  but  in  which  the 
case  was  reversed  for  capitalists  and  politicians,  and  yet  the  latter 
were  supported  to  the  limit  by  the  former ! 

2.  “On  the  multitudes  nationalism  could  be  made  to  act  as  a 
sort  of  laughing  gas.  If  a  labourer  could  be  induced  to  take  a 
long  deep  breath  of  it,  he  would  feel  quite  exhilarated  and  for  a 
time  at  any  rate  he  would  forget  about  overwork  and  underpay  in 
factory,  field,  or  mine,  and  lose  the  reality  of  his  own  squalid 
habitation  in  the  dream  of  national  greatness.”  (Hayes,  Essays 
on  Nationalism,  p.  74.)  Consider  to  what  extent  nationalism 
acts  as  a  compensation  mechanism  on  others  who  feel  their  in¬ 
ability  to  achieve  individually.  To  what  extent  does  nationalism 
represent  an  urge  for  “the  expansion  of  the  ego”? 

3.  “But  nationalism  could  hardly  be  the  driving  force  in  the 
lives  of  the  masses  of  mankind  which  it  is  today  had  not  instru¬ 
mentalities  of  mass-education  been  perfected  and  utilized  for 


24 


popular  propaganda.  Nationalism,  being  a  cultural  phenomenon, 
is  not  ‘in  the  blood’;  it  cannot  be  transmitted  biologically  from 
one  person  to  another;  it  is  an  ‘acquired  character’,  and  the 
method  of  its  acquisition,  as  of  any  cultural  product,  is  education.” 
(Hayes,  p.  78.)  In  this  connection  we  note  at  least  three  power¬ 
ful  educational  agencies: 

a.  Popular  compulsory  education  in  state  schools  has  been 
intensely  nationalistic  in  tone.  In  what  ways?  Give 
some  well-known  illustrations  of  educational  systems 
built  around  the  principle  of  nationalism. 

b.  Modern  journalism  has  not  lagged  behind  the  schools 
as  an  educational  agency  in  implanting  nationalistic 
conceptions  in  the  minds  of  the  masses.  Here  again  we 
are  faced  with  the  significance  of  the  Industrial  Revo¬ 
lution  which  made  possible  the  new  journalism,  “the 
greatest  engine  yet  constructed  for  propaganda  and 
education.” 

c.  Universal  military  service,  a  comparatively  new  insti¬ 
tution,  has  been  one  of  the  most  effective  educational 
agencies  of  nationalism.  Note  its  historical  relation  to 
nationalism.  As  long  as  wars  were  fought  by  profes¬ 
sionals,  the  masses  were  largely  indifferent  to  their  out¬ 
come,  but  when  the  modern  state  began  to  reach  into 
every  home  of  the  land,  it  provided,  in  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  manner  conceivable,  for  the  planting  of  nation¬ 
alism  deep  in  the  emotional  life  of  the  masses.  Wars 
were  no  longer  the  concern  solely  of  feudal  lords  and 
the  fighting  men  whose  services  they  could  buy;  they 
became  the  common  enterprise  of  whole  populations, 
for  which  no  sacrifice  was  too  great. 

4.  Between  the  final  unification  of  Italy  in  1871  and  the  end 
of  the  World  War,  “Italia  Irredenta”  (Italy  Unredeemed)  was  a 
political  principle  which  made  a  profound  appeal  to  the  spirit  of 
nationalism.  It  stood  for  a  policy  which  aimed  to  bring  within 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy  those  adjacent  regions  where  mixed  popu¬ 
lations  included  large  numbers  of  Italians.  Such  a  policy,  known 
now  as  “irredentism”,  has  been  an  important  nationalistic  factor 
in  winning  support  for  many  wars  in  recent  history,  as  for  ex¬ 
ample,  the  recovery  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  (See  Hayes,  pp.  138- 
145.) 


25 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 


1.  Distinguish  between  nationalism  and  nationality.  Between 
nationalism  and  race.  Also  between  nationalism  and  pa¬ 
triotism. 

2.  In  what  countries  were  there  strong  movements  of  na¬ 
tionalism  between  1848  and  1871  ? 

3.  What  wars  of  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries 
have  been  supported  by  appeals  to  the  spirit  of  nation¬ 
alism?  In  which  of  these  did  “irredentism”  play  a  part? 

4.  What  present  conflict  situations  involve  “irredentist” 
claims  ? 

5.  Consider  the  method  of  inculcating  nationalism  by 

a.  Building  up  the  myth  of  the  nation  as  super-person, 
having  unlimited  claims  of  loyalty  upon  the  nationalist. 

b.  The  process  of  conditioning  responses  to  symbols  of 
nationalism.  (See  Allport:  The  Psychology  of  Na¬ 
tionalism,  Harper’s  Magazine,  August,  1927.) 

6.  In  view  of  the  remarkable  efficiency  of  steam  power  in  aid¬ 
ing  the  development  of  a  national  consciousness,  is  it  pos¬ 
sible  to  believe  that  radio  and  aviation  will  make  similar 
contributions  to  the  development  of  international  or  world¬ 
mindedness  ? 

7.  What  expressions  of  nationalism  are  at  variance  with  the 
principle  of  international  cooperation?  Which  are  not  nec¬ 
essarily  inconsistent  with  it?  At  what  point  does  na¬ 
tionalism  pass  from  an  achievement  to  a  problem? 

8.  Consider  nationalism  as  a  religion!  (See  Chapter  VII 
below.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 


Hayes,  C.  J.  H. :  Essays  on  Nationalism,  Macmillan,  1926. 
Page,  Kirby:  Nationalism  and  Imperialism,  Doran,  1926. 

Allport,  F.  H. :  The  Psychology  of  Nationalism,  Harper’s 
Magazine,  August,  1927. 

Holmes,  J.  H. :  Patriotism  Is  Not  Enough,  Greenberg, 
1925. 


Tagore,  R. :  Nationalism,  Macmillan. 

Spender,  J.  A.:  The  Changing  East,  Stokes,  1927. 

Dutcher,  G.  M. :  The  Political  Awakening  of  the  East, 
Abingdon  Press,  1925. 


26 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  ECONOMIC  ORDER. 

As  clearly  indicated  in  Chapter  II,  in  all  the  major  areas  of 
conflict,  economic  considerations  are  prominently  and  inextricably 
involved.  It  is  therefore  essential  to  our  purpose  that  a  careful 
examination  be  made  of  the  economic  and  industrial  system  as 
prerequisite  to  an  adequate  understanding  of  the  international 
situations  which  now  confront  us. 

That  the  industrial  system  has  brought  many  benefits  to  man¬ 
kind  there  can  be  no  doubt.  But  it  is  equally  true  that  the  exist¬ 
ing  control  over  this  system  is  basically  unethical.  Although  eco¬ 
nomic  enterprise  is  not  uninfluenced  by  ethical  considerations, 
the  avowed  aim  is  private  economic  gain.  The  non-social  nature 
of  the  system  which  results  is  clearly  evidenced  by 

A.  The  failure  to  co-ordinate  industry  as  a  whole  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  providing  as  adequately  as  possible  for  human 

needs,  resulting  in  such  conditions  as 

1.  Lack  of  standardization,  and  interference  with  the  free 
interchange  of  ideas  and  discoveries  by  such  means  as 
trade  secrets  and  patent  rights. 

2.  Unnecessary  duplication  of  the  means  and  agencies  for 
production  and  especially  for  distribution. 

B.  The  deliberate  refusal,  despite  the  needs  which  everywhere 

exist,  to  utilize  all  of  the  resources  of  society  to  meet 
these  needs  :  Sabotage : 

1.  The  wanton  destruction  and  wasting  of  food,  natural 
resources,  and  other  social  wealth  in  order  to  maintain 
a  price  level  or  to  secure  the  resources  more  rapidly. 

3.  The  unnecessary  curtailment  of  production  in  order  to 
raise  or  maintain  a  price  level,  and  the  resulting  unem¬ 
ployment. 

4.  The  employment  of  men  and  resources  in  harmful,  or 
socially  non-productive  enterprises. 

In  short,  those  in  control  of  the  industrial  system  have  deliber¬ 
ately  restricted  production  to  the  amount  most  profitable  to  them- 


27 


selves,  thus  giving  to  society  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  in¬ 
creased  production  which  modern  developments  in  science  and 
invention  have  made  possible.  Such  conditions  evidence,  not 
merely  waste  and  inefficiency  but  conflict  (politely  called  compe¬ 
tition).  In  the  struggle  to  secure  economic  advantage,  natural 
resources,  markets,  trade,  and  the  control  of  capital  and  indus¬ 
trial  enterprise  it  is  inevitable  that  the  interests  of  different  capi¬ 
talist  groups,  and  of  capitalists,  workers,  and  society  should  con¬ 
flict.  As  results  of  these  evils  and  the  non-social  motives  of 
which  they  are  inevitable  consequences,  are 

A.  The  denial  of  Justice  and  Brotherhood  by 

1.  The  injustice  of  distributing  the  economic  rewards  of 
industry,  not  according  to  services  rendered  or  need, 
but  according  to  interest  in  and  ability  for  acquisition. 

2.  The  arbitrary  and  irresponsible  power  which  wealth 
inevitably  gives  its  possessors  over 

a.  The  workers  who  are  dependent  upon  the  use  of 
this  capital  for  the  means  of  earning  their  livelihood. 

b.  The  consumers  who  are  dependent  upon  them  for 
the  goods  which  they  must  use,  and  who  can  exer¬ 
cise  control  only  by  going  without  the  things  they 
need. 

c.  The  institutions  and  hence  the  ideals  of  society. 

The  power  to  give  or  withhold  donations  to  politi¬ 
cal,  educational,  charitable,  or  religious  institutions 
gives  to  its  possessors  a  disproportionate  influence 
over  governments,  colleges,  churches,  and  charitable 
organizations,  and  hence,  over  the  thought  and 
ideals,  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  welfare  of  the 
other  members  of  society. 

B.  The  Injurious  Effects  of  Industrial  and  Economic  Condi¬ 
tions  upon  the  Workers. 

1.  Unnecessary  industrial  accidents  and  industrial  dis¬ 
eases,  and  the  harmful  effects  of  fatigue. 

2.  Evils  resulting  from  the  mechanizing  effects  of  indus¬ 
try  upon  the  workers. 

a.  Relative  lack  of  interest  in  their  work,  and  the  lack 
of  development  which  would  result  from  a  greater 
opportunity  for  initiative  and  a  greater  share  in 
control. 


28 


b.  Relative  lack  of  interest  in  living. 

c.  The  increased  desire  for  unhealthful  stimulation. 

3.  Poverty  and  other  evils  resulting  from  the  lack  of 
leisure  and  resources  to  enjoy  home  life  or  to  take  ad¬ 
vantage  of  opportunities  for  personal  development  and 
culture. 


THE  ECONOMIC  SYSTEM  AS  THE  MOST 
INFLUENTIAL  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTION 
IN  THE  MOLDING  OF  CHARACTER. 

Discussions  of  the  economic  system  have  usually  centered 
about  descriptions  and  explanations  of  the  processes  of  produc¬ 
tion  and  profit-making.  Existing  conditions  and  proposed  inno¬ 
vations  such  as  socialism  have  usually  been  evaluated  upon  the 
basis  of  their  supposed  significance  for  productive  efficiency  and 
economic  prosperity.  More  socially  minded  people  have  insisted 
that  full  consideration  be  given  to  the  human  values  involved. 
So  strenuously  and  effectively  have  they  maintained  this  emphasis 
that  now  even  the  most  orthodox  economists  no  longer  regard 
labor  as  a  mere  commodity,  and  recognize  that  the  effects  of  in¬ 
dustry  upon  the  workers  and  upon  society  should  be  taken  into 
account.  This  humanitarian  concern  has  centered  so  far  about 
physical  welfare;  the  effects  of  fatigue,  bad  housing  conditions, 
inadequate  income,  industrial  accidents  and  diseases.  Hence 
benevolently  inclined  employers  and  philanthropists  have  raised 
wages,  cut  the  hours  of  labor,  built  model  homes,  and  provided 
gymnasiums,  libraries  and  classes,  free  medical  attention,  and 
band-concerts  for  their  employees  and  the  community.  The  sig¬ 
nificance  of  industrial  and  economic  conditions  for  spiritual  de¬ 
velopment  have  by  no  means  been  overlooked.  But  even  these 
have  been  considered  usually  in  terms  of  opportunity  and  depri¬ 
vation;  of  opportunity  for  initiative,  or  of  leisure  and  resources 
for  cultural  and  personal  development.  The  more  enlightened 
have  now  become  deeply  suspicious  of  paternalism  and  welfare 
work,  and  have  caught  glimpses  of  the  industrial  system  as  not 
only  crushing  or  enriching  personality,  but  as  actually  molding 
character,  for  better  or  for  worse.  But  few  have  grasped  the  full 
significance  of  the  economic  system  as  the  most  potent  educa¬ 
tional  influence  in  the  world  today,  or  have  centered  their  pro¬ 
posals  for  its  reorganization  and  control  about  its  functions  as  an 
institution  for  character  formation. 


29 


“Man  ist  was  er  isst”  says  a  German  proverb.  Modern  psy¬ 
chology  has  conclusively  shown  that  a  truer  statement  would  be 
“Man  ist  was  er  tut ”,  man  is  what  he  does.  We  now  know  that 
character  is  formed  in  the  whole  process  of  experience.  Every 
time  one  attends  a  theatre,  makes  a  purchase  at  the  store ;  every¬ 
where  and  every  time  a  conduct  decision  is  made,  and  in  general, 
only  under  such  circumstances,  character  is  being  formed.  It  is 
true  that  “as  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart  so  is  he”,  but  it  is  true 
also  that  what  he  thinks  in  his  heart  is  largely  determined  by  the 
customary  procedure,  attitudes,  and  standards  of  value  of  the 
social  situations  in  which  he  must  function. 

Of  these  social  influences,  by  far  the  most  potent  is  the  eco¬ 
nomic  system.  The  majority  of  adults  spend  most  of  their  wak¬ 
ing  hours  in  striving  to  wrest  from  it  as  much  as  possible.  It  is 
not  the  length  of  time  spent  in  such  activities,  however,  which  is 
responsible  for  their  influence  on  character;  it  is  rather  the  vital 
relationship  they  bear  to  the  whole  of  life.  He  errs  who  con¬ 
ceives  of  them  in  crassly  materialistic  terms.  For  upon  them  are 
largely  dependent  such  considerations  as  health,  opportunities  for 
education,  home,  and  the  welfare  of  family  and  children.  The 
most  tender  sentiments  and  noblest  values  are  so  inextricably 
bound  up  with  them  as  to  make  a  refusal  to  conform  to  the  exist¬ 
ing  system  of  economic  organization  practically  impossible.  The 
economic  system  inevitably  and  indelibly  impresses  its  own  na¬ 
ture  upon  those  who  participate  in  it.  Few  considerations  are 
more  important  than  the  determination  of  the  nature  of  this  most 
potent  influence  upon  character. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ECONOMIC  SYSTEM 

ON  CHARACTER. 

I.  Effects  of  the  inequitable  distribution  of  wealth. 

A.  On  the  Poor.  We  have  already  suggested  the  physical 
hardships  and  deprivations  of  poverty.  Let  us  not  for¬ 
get  that  it  involves  spiritual  losses.  Among  these  are: 

1.  Those  resulting  from  the  absence  of  freedom,  and  de¬ 
pendence  upon  others  for  the  means  of  earning  a  liv¬ 
ing,  with  resulting  servility. 

2.  The  necessary  concentration  of  attention  upon  material 
considerations,  with  the  resulting  lower  standard  of 
values. 

3.  Fear,  bitterness,  hatred,  hopelessness  and  despair. 


30 


B.  On  the  Rich.  Perhaps  more  unfortunate  than  the 
effects  of  poverty  on  the  poor  are  the  effect's  of  exces¬ 
sive  wealth  on  the  rich. 

1.  The  undue  power  of  wealth  subjects  its  possessors  to 
strong  and  unusual  temptations.  Probably  the  most 
subtle,  alluring,  and  destructive  of  these  is  the  tempta¬ 
tion  to  control  one’s  fellow  men.  The  control  which 
wealth  gives  over  the  institutions  of  society,  plus  the 
deference  given  to  its  owners  by  those  who  wish  this 
wealth  for  their  enterprises,  almost  inevitably  gives  to 
those  who  possess  it  an  unjustified  and  exaggerated 
conception  of  their  own  competence  and  right  to  de¬ 
cide  the  policies  of  these  institutions,  and  hence,  con¬ 
duct  and  opinions  of  their  fellow  men.  Few  situations 
could  be  more  damning  to  character  than  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  for  incompetents  to  exercise  unearned  and  irre¬ 
sponsible  power. 

2.  Unearned  wealth  and  income  tends  to  weaken  charac¬ 
ter  and  to  make  its  possessors  idle,  lazy,  and  useless. 

3.  Great  differences  in  economic  status  tend  to  isolate  the 
rich  from  their  fellow  men  and  to  make  human  sym¬ 
pathy  and  mutual  understanding  more  difficult. 

a.  Wealth  is  a  barrier  to  mixing  and  to  the  free  inter¬ 
change  of  viewpoints. 

b.  Not  knowing  what  it  means  to  go  without,  the  rich 
tend  to  become  indifferent  to  human  needs. 

II.  The  present  economic  system  promotes  the  use  of  Force 
and  Violence  and  the  spirit  of  Revolt  and  Crime. 

1.  It  is  largely  responsible  for  the  existence  of  the  social 
conditions,  such  as  the  slums,  in  which  the  criminal  and 
the  malcontent  are  bred. 

2.  By  making  it  often  more  profitable  to  engage  in  socially 
less  productive  enterprises,  it  has  dissipated  valuable  tal¬ 
ent  and  energies  which  otherwise  might  be  available  to 
correct  these  evil  social  conditions. 

3.  It  has,  and  to  a  great  extent,  consciously  and  deliberately, 
done  much  to  create  discontent  among  the  people  by 

a.  The  examples  of  conspicuous  waste  and  the  “higher” 
standard  of  living  set  by  the  wealthy. 

b.  Salesmanship  and  advertising. 


31 


c.  The  spectacle  of  large  fortunes  being  amassed  without 
the  necessity  for  productive  effort. 

4.  It  has  failed  to  provide,  for  most  people,  legitimate  and 
moral  possibilities  for  the  satisfying  of  their  desires. 

5.  It  has  tended  to  destroy  confidence  in,  and  to  promote  con¬ 
tempt  for,  law,  order,  and  constituted  authority  by 

a.  The  control  which  it  has  exercised,  often  by  corrupt 
means,  over  the  election  and  conduct  of  civil  authori¬ 
ties. 

b.  Its  encouragement  of  the  illegal  and  unjustifiable  use 
of  force  and  violence  on  the  part  of  civil  authorities 
against  laboring  groups. 

c.  Its  promotion  of  actual  anarchy;  the  employment  by 
private  interests,  of  armed  forces  which  are  not  respon¬ 
sible  for  their  conduct  to  any  civil  authority. 

d.  Industrial  espionage ;  the  employment  of  spies,  thugs, 
and  gunmen  to  break  up  labor  organizations  and  to 
discredit  them  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

6.  It  has  tended  to  undermine  and  destroy  the  faith  of  the 
people  in  moral  ideals  by 

a.  Accepting  as  the  underlying  basis  of  its  philosophy  and 
practice,  acquisition  (private  greed)  as  its  primary  aim 
and  most  important  consideration. 

b.  Its  utter  disregard  for  truth  in  its  propaganda  against 
those  who  attempt  to  call  it  to  account  for  its  philosophy 
and  activities. 

c.  Its  shameless  disregard  for  human  welfare,  human 
happiness,  and  human  life. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  ECONOMIC  SYSTEM 
ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

It  is  needless  to  do  more  than  suggest  that,  in  securing  for 
itself  the  best  talent  available,  the  economic  system  has  arrogated 
to  itself  a  disproportionate  share  of  the  total  energies  of  society, 
and  thus  deprived  society  of  talent,  resources,  and  ability  sadly 
needed  for  the  task  of  social  adjustment.  Here,  for  example,  is 
a  man,  brilliant  and  talented ;  one  man  in  a  thousand.  He  might 
if  he  would,  be  doing  much  to  work  out  means  for  the  pacific  set- 
telment  of  international  disputes ;  in  helping  to  make  it  impossible 
that  men  should  ever  again  be  hanging,  “screaming  and  gibbering 
...  on  the  barbed  wire  until  a  friendly  spout  of  liquid  fire 
shrivels  them  up  like  a  fly  in  a  candle”.  Yet  with  the  seeds  of 


32 


another  such  war  being  sown;  a  war  far  more  horrible  than  any 
the  world  has  yet  known;  a  war  so  destructive  that  if  it  comes, 
civilization  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past;  what  is  this  man  doing 
with  his  abilities?  He  is  conducting  a  series  of  advertising  cam¬ 
paigns,  trying  to  persuade  people  to  buy  one  brand  of  pink  pa¬ 
jamas  instead  of  another.  Why?  Because  as  society  is  now  or¬ 
ganized  it  does  not  pay  him  to  stop  wars,  but  the  pink  pajama 
industry  he  finds  highly  profitable. 

Far  more  insidious  than  any  mere  deprivation,  however,  is 
the  influence  of  the  struggle  for  the  natural  resources,  markets 
and  trade  of  the  world  in  causing  international  complications. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  those  will  exploit  the  labor  of  the 
children  of  their  own  country,  or  employ  spies,  thugs,  and  gun¬ 
men  against  their  fellow  citizens,  will  scruple  in  dealing  with  the 
“backward”  foreigners  into  whose  territories  they  have  gone  in 
search  of  gain.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  those  who  will  bribe 
and  corrupt  their  governments  to  gain  economic  advantage  at 
home  will  hesitate  to  bring  as  much  pressure  as  possible  to  bear 
to  promote  their  interests  abroad,  even  though  such  a  policy  may 
result  in  war  with  the  governments  of  other  economic  interests. 
The  frequent  invasions  of  supposedly  sovereign  states  by  the 
military  forces  of  the  United  States,  and  the  seizure  and  forcible 
defense  of  concessions  in  China  and  other  areas  of  the  Orient  not 
strong  enough  to  defend  themselves  show  clearly  the  operation  of 
such  influences.  The  facts  of  imperialism  and  “dollar  diplomacy” 
are  too  well  known  to  need  further  elaboration.  While  we  would 
not  subscribe  to  the  rather  loose  and  confused  “economic  inter¬ 
pretation  of  history”,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  as  other  chapters 
in  this  book  clearly  show,  that  economic  conflicts,  while  by  no 
means  the  only  causes,  lie  at  the  basis  of  international  discord. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

A.  Consider  the  profit  motive. 

1.  What  is  it?  The  desire  for  economic  security?  For 
luxury?  For  power? 

2.  Why  is  it  that  those  who  have  far  more  money  than 
they  wish  to  spend  continue  to  strive  for  more?  Is  it 
because 

a.  They  are  mean  and  do  not  wish  others  to  have 
enough  ? 

b.  They  just  wish  to  see  how  much  they  can  get? 

c.  Money  is  power  and  they  wish  as  much  control  over 
their  fellow  men  as  possible? 


33 


3.  Why  is  it  that  men  who  are  willing  to  give  their  em¬ 
ployees  high  wages  and  all  sorts  of  welfare  work  vig¬ 
orously  and  uncompromisingly  fight  all  efforts  on  the 
part  of  their  employees  to  share  in  the  control  of  the 
business?  Why  do  many  people  regard  charity  and 
welfare  work  with  suspicion?  Do  these  questions  throw 
any  light  on  the  opposition  of  employees  to  unions  and 
the  closed  shop,  and  on  the  opposition  of  labor  leaders 
to  company  unions  ? 

4.  Consider  the  proposition  that  the  struggle  for  power  is 
a  central  issue  in  the  conflicts  between  capitalists  and 
workers,  and  between  conservatives  and  radicals. 

5.  Is  the  profit  motive  indispensable,  or  is  it  possible  that 
industry  might  be  conducted  as  the  home,  the  public 
school,  the  church,  and  the  political  state  are  conducted ; 
not  for  the  economic  advantage  of  those  who  control 
them,  but  for  the  good  of  the  people? 

B.  The  chapter  includes  a  rather  severe  indictment  of  the  eco¬ 
nomic  system.  To  what  extent  do  you  think  that  this  in¬ 
dictment  is  justified? 

1.  Do  you  agree  with  the  chapter  that  the  economic  sys¬ 
tem  is  the  most  influential  educational  institution  in  the 
world  from  the  standpoint  of  character  formation? 
Consider  advertising  as  an  influence  on  moral  educa¬ 
tion.  What  ideals  does  it  present  as  to  what  is  most 
important  and  worth  while  in  life? 

2.  Whom  does  the  inequitable  distribution  of  wealth  in¬ 
jure  most;  the  poor  or  the  rich?  Do  you  believe  that 
the  state  should  strictly  limit  inheritance  in  order  to 
protect  the  oncoming  generations  from  the  injurious 
effects  of  unearned  riches? 

3.  As  an  actual  matter  of  fact,  who  have  been  most  free 
in  the  employment  of  force  and  violence  in  the  United 
States,  capitalists  or  communists? 

C.  To  what  extent  have  the  rich  actually  earned  the  enormous 
fortunes  which  they  possess?  Do  you  know  of  fortunes 
which  have  been  founded  or  greatly  increased  by  such 
means  as 

1.  The  deliberate  manipulation  of  stock,  or  the  issuance  of 
watered  stock,  involving  others  in  financial  ruin  ?  What 
is  the  significance  of  the  stock  dividend? 


34 


2.  The  control  of  legislation  and  courts  by  bribery  and 
political  pressure? 

3.  The  gouging  of  the  government  in  contracts? 

4.  Secret  discriminatory  transportation  rates  enabling 
those  so  favored  to  crush  competitors  and  establish 
monopolies  ? 

5.  Undervaluation  in  customs  returns,  enabling  certain 
importers  to  crush  competitors  who  made  honest  re¬ 
turns  ? 

6.  The  seizure  of  public  domain  and  the  exploitation  of 
natural  resources  for  private  gain? 

7.  The  underpayment  of  labor  and  the  exploitation  of 
child  labor? 

8.  The  exploitation  of  backward  peoples  with  the  military 
support  of  government? 

9.  Such  accidental  factors  as  inheritance  or  the  rise  of 
land  values  ? 

D.  Consider  carefully  the  influence  of  economic  conflict  on 
international  discord.  What  part  did  economic  causes  play 
in  the  last  war? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Chase,  Stuart,  The  Tragedy  of  Waste ,  Macmillan,  1926. 

Chase,  Stuart,  and  Schlink,  Getting  Your  Money’s  Worth , 
Macmillan,  1927. 

Howard,  Sidney,  The  Labor  Spy ,  New  Republic  Press, 
1924. 

Hunter,  Robert,  Violence  and  the  Labor  Movement,  Mac¬ 
millan. 

Lane,  Winthrop  D.,  The  Denial  of  Civil  Liberties  in  the 
Coal  Fields,  Doran. 

Whipple,  Leon,  The  Story  of  Civil  Liberties  in  the  United 
States,  Vanguard  Press,  1927. 

Hapgood,  Norman,  (editor),  Professional  Patriots,  A.  C. 
Boni,  1927. 

Tarbell,  Ida,  The  History  of  the  Standard  Oil.  (2  vols.) 

Myers,  Gustavus,  The  History  of  the  Great  American  For¬ 
tunes  (3  vols.),  Charles  H.  Kerr  &  Co.,  1907-1909. 

Nearing,  Scott,  Dollar  Diplomacy. 

Moon,  Thomas  Parker,  Modern  Diplomacy. 


35 


CHAPTER  V. 


IMPERIALISM. 

Modern  imperialism  is  the  product  of  the  new  economic  order 
and  the  spirit  of  nationalism.  By  1871  the  industrialization  of 
Europe  and  the  growth  of  nationalism  had  proceeded  so  far  that 
the  new  or  economic  imperialism  was  inevitable.  It  differed  from 
ancient  imperialisms  in  its  economic  emphasis.  From  1848  to  1871 
was  the  period  of  nationalism;  1871  to  1914  was  the  period 
of  economic  imperialism.  There  are  signs  of  the  beginning  of 
the  end  of  this  newest  form  of  imperialism.  With  the  growth 
of  nationalism  in  exploited  areas,  imperialism  is  encountering 
difficulties  that  begin  to  seem  insurmountable.  Two  courses  seem 
open  to  the  present  and  rising  generation:  deadlier  conflict  that 
has  yet  been  known  in  international  war  with  consequences  that 
cannot  be  predicted,  or  some  form  of  internationalism  that  em¬ 
bodies  in  a  full  measure  the  principles  of  cooperation.  Can  it  be 
that  these  courses  present  the  most  urgent  task  of  the  immediate 
future? 

I 

Again  our  story  begins  with  the  rise  of  industrialism  which 
made  the  factory  instead  of  the  home,  the  producing  center.  The 
consequences  of  this  shift  were  so  momentous  that  even  now  we 
cannot  measure  them.  The  ownership  of  the  tools  of  production 
passed  from  those  who  toiled  with  their  hands  to  those  who  were 
clever  enough  to  seize  them.  With  the  ownership  of  the  tools 
went  the  lion’s  share  of  the  rewards  of  production.  Labor  be¬ 
came  a  commodity  to  be  bought  with  the  smallest  wage  that 
would  enable  the  worker  to  keep  body  and  soul  together.  The 
profit  motive  became  dominant.  Wealth  was  more  and  more 
massed  in  the  hands  of  those  who  owned  the  tools.  One  tool 
they  lacked, — the  handy  instrument  of  government.  That  was 
still  in  the  hands  of  the  “planting  aristocracy,”  or  the  successors 
of  the  feudal  lords,  who  owned  the  land.  The  industrial  barons 
set  out  to  dispossess  the  landlords,  and  in  the  United  States  the 
Civil  War  was  the  result.  The  industrialists  won.  They  im¬ 
posed  tariffs  upon  the  goods  of  competing  producers  in  other 
lands.  They  regulated  prices  at  home  on  the  principle  of  “all 
the  traffic  would  bear;”  and  waxed  fat  in  wealth.  Labor  hit 
upon  the  idea  of  organization  to  resist  exploitation,  and  the 
modern  labor  unions  were  born. 


36 


II 


Soon  the  home  market  reached  the  “saturation  point,”  and 
other  markets  had  to  be  found  abroad  for  the  surplus  products 
of  the  industrial  system.  There  was  a  scramble  for  colonies  in 
all  the  “unoccupied”  areas  of  the  world.  Europe  took  up  the 
long-neglected  “white  man’s  burden.”  In  the  United  States, 
economic  initiative  was  still  busy  with  the  conquest  of  its  vast 
western  territories.  But  with  the  turn  of  the  century  the  United 
States,  too,  turned  its  attention  to  the  economic  opportunities  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  underwent  re¬ 
interpretation  to  permit  interference  in  the  domestic  politics  of 
the  Latin  American  countries,  whenever  “the  lives  and  property 
of  American  citizens”  demanded  it. 

III 

To  reach  the  markets  at  home  and  abroad,  improved  com¬ 
munications  became  necessary.  Steam  and  electricity  were  rapidly 
harnessed  for  the  purpose.  Between  1850  and  1900  railways 
increased  from  a  mileage  of  24,000  to  a  mileage  of  500,000.  The 
tonnage  of  steam  shipping  increased  more  than  three  hundred 
per  cent  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century.  Telegraphs  in¬ 
creased  from  5,000  miles  in  1850  to  1,180,000  miles  in  1900. 

IV 

The  supplies  of  certain  raw  materials  which  were  of  funda¬ 
mental  importance  in  modern  industry  soon  occasioned  new 
rivalries  between  the  industrial  powers.  Uninhabited  areas  which 
were  useless  as  markets  held  vast  stores  of  iron,  coal,  rubber, 
and  oil.  The  wheels  of  imperialism  cannot  turn  without  these. 

a.  “Who  has  oil  has  empire !”  wrote  Berenger  to  Clemenceau 
in  1919.  “Control  of  the  ocean  by  heavy  oils,  control 
of  the  air  by  highly  refined  oils,  and  of  the  land  by  petrol 
and  illuminating  oils.  Empire  of  the  World  through  the 
financial  power  attaching  to  a  substance  more  precious, 
more  penetrating,  more  influential  in  the  world  than  gold 
itself !”  Such  a  statement  explains  why  all  the  Great 
Powers  have  a  definite  “oil  policy.”  Lord  Curzon  de¬ 
clared,  “Truly  posterity  will  say  that  the  Allies  floated 
to  victory  on  a  wave  of  oil.” 

b.  Rubber  is  quite  as  essential  as  oil  to  modern  civilization. 
The  automobile  industry  alone  requires  an  amount  of 


37 


rubber  sufficient  to  make  it  one  of  the  “raw  materials  of 
imperialism.”  Whereas  there  were  less  than  4,000  auto¬ 
mobiles  manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1899,  there 
were  almost  4,000,000  made  in  our  country  a  quarter  of 
a  century  later. 

c.  The  United  States  Steel  heads  the  list  of  our  billion  dollar 
corporations.  Coal  and  iron  supplies  are  not  found  in 
equal  quantities  throughout  the  world, — hence  the  rivalries 
of  the  Great  Powers  for  these  raw  materials ! 

V 

The  next  important  factor  in  the  making  of  modern  imperial¬ 
ism  was  the  “surplus  capital”  for  investment  in  foreign  countries. 
Bankers  have  not  infrequently  lent  to  weaker  powers  on  bad 
securities  and  then  relied  on  government  to  collect  the  obligations. 
Among  others,  study  the  case  of  Egypt  during  the  19th  century. 
In  several  cases  the  conclusion  of  the  matter  has  been  the  political 
control  of  the  borrowing  country  by  the  country  of  the  lending 
bankers. 

VI 

Where  surplus  capital  is  invested  in  weaker  countries  it  claims 
the  full  protection  of  the  military  forces  of  the  home  govern¬ 
ment.  Hence  military  occupations  for  the  “protection  of  Ameri¬ 
can  lives  and  property !”  The  whole  economic  outreach  of  an 
industrial  country  into  the  farthest  corners  of  the  earth  is  depend¬ 
ent  for  its  success,  so  we  are  told,  upon  a  home  government  with 
a  military  machine  ready  and  adequate  for  its  protection, — with 
or  without  regard  for  the  interests  of  the  peoples  of  the  exploited 
regions.  Thus  militarism  becomes  a  strong  ally  of  the  economic 
order. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  What  concessions  has  imperialism  made  to  the  growing 
nationalism  of  China  and  Turkey  in  recent  months?  Do 
you  agree  with  Upton  Close  that  this  growing  nationalism 
of  Oriental  peoples  spells  the  end  of  the  white  man’s  world? 

2.  Would  universal  Free  Trade  lessen  international  conflicts 
and  make  for  cooperation? 

3.  What  will  happen  in  exporting  countries  when  their  mar¬ 
kets  are  cut  off  by  the  growth  of  manufacturers  in  coun¬ 
tries  where  they  have  been  selling? 


38 


4.  Study  the  distribution  of  the  principal  raw  materials  of 
industry.  Can  you  suggest  any  control  of  these  supplies 
for  the  use  of  all  countries,  in  proportion  to  their  indus¬ 
trial  needs? 

5.  Should  there  be  limits  upon  the  protection  given  foreign 
investments?  What?  The  United  States  has  more  than 
twenty  billions  of  dollars  in  foreign  investments  and  foreign 
debts;  does  this  constitute,  in  your  judgment,  an  entangl¬ 
ing  alliance?  How  does  it  compare  with  membership  in 
the  League  of  Nations  in  its  “entangling”  possibilities? 

6.  Correlate  the  expenditure  for  military  purposes  with  the 
total  of  their  foreign  investments,  of  the  leading  countries 
of  the  world. 

7.  What  blessings  has  imperialism  brought  to  backward 
peoples  ?  What  handicaps  ? 

8.  Does  imperialism  now  have  at  its  disposal  machinery  that 
could  be  turned  into  the  machinery  of  cooperation?  Give 
concrete  illustrations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Moon,  P.  T. :  Imperialism  and  World  Politics ,  Macmillan, 
1926. 

de  la  Trameyre:  The  World  Struggle  for  Oil,  Knopf,  1924. 

Davenport,  E.  H.  and  Cooke,  S.  R. :  The  Oil  Trusts  and 
Anglo-American  Relations,  Macmillan,  1924. 

Enock,  A.  G. :  The  Problem  of  Armaments,  Macmillan, 
1923. 

Inman,  S.  G. :  Imperialistic  America,  Atlantic  Monthly, 
July  1. 

Woolf,  L. :  Economic  Imperialism,  Harcourt  Brace,  1920. 

Thomas,  Norman:  The  Challenge  of  War,  an  Economic 
Interpretation.  (League  for  Industrial  Democracy). 


39 


CHAPTER  VI. 


INTERRACIAL  RELATIONS 

“NEGROES  BARRED  IN  GARY  SCHOOL” 

“Striking  Students  Win  Out  in  Protest  Against  Blacks” 

(By  United  Press.) 

“Gary,  Ind.,  Sept.  30. — ‘Jim  Crow’  today  had  gained  a  foot¬ 
hold  in  the  Gary  school  system  and  1,500  white  students  who 
walked  out  of  classes  rather  than  attend  with  negroes  returned  to 
Emerson  High  School. 

“The  city  council  at  a  special  meeting  last  night  agreed  to  a 
special  bond  issue  of  $15,000  for  establishment  of  a  temporary 
high  school  for  negroes,  to  be  used  until  a  permanent  school  can 
be  established. 

“Negroes  will  continue  to  attend  other  high  schools,  but  they 
will  be  barred  from  the  Emerson  school,  located  in  the  city’s 
most  exclusive  residential  district. 

“The  strike  originated  Monday  when  six  hundred  students 
left  their  classes  in  protest  against  eighteen  negroes  who  had  reg¬ 
istered.” 

I.  WHAT  IS  RACE? 

In  considering  the  relations  between  races  it  is  important  at 
the  outset  to  define  as  clearly  as  possible  what  we  mean  by  the 
term  race. 

a.  Distinguish  between  race  and  nationality. 

b.  Do  racial  lines  follow  linguistic  lines?  Is  the  term 
“Aryan”  used  more  correctly  in  describing  a  racial  or  a 
linguistic  group  ? 

c.  Are  racial  distinctions  strongly  marked? 

d.  Are  they  permanent? 

e.  How  are  geography  and  race  related  ? 

f.  Are  there  any  pure  races?  How  have  migrations  affected 
racial  purity? 


40 


g.  Is  race  an  exact  or  an  approximate  classification  based 
upon  certain  arbitrarily  chosen  qualities? 

h.  Which  of  the  following  characteristics  determine  race: 
Color  of  hair;  color  of  skin;  anatomical  measurements; 
culture ;  economic  levels ;  language ;  geographical  area ; 
color  of  eye;  hair-form;  grade  of  intelligence?  Does  a 
single  trait  suffice  to  fix  racial  category  or  must  there  be  a 
combination  of  a  number  of  traits? 

II.  WHERE  DO  INTERRACIAL  RELATIONS 
CONSTITUTE  PROBLEMS? 

a.  The  Southern  States  of  the  United  States.  Note  the  back¬ 
ground  of  the  present  situation,  and  in  what  ways  it  dif¬ 
fers  from  the  past.  In  Northern  cities  due  to  recent  mi¬ 
grations. 

b.  The  South  African  situation. 

c.  The  Japanese  in  California. 

d.  Western  Imperialism  in  the  Orient. 

e.  In  Immigration : 

1.  Discriminations  in  laws  of  the  United  States. 

2.  In  Australia. 

f.  Name  other  conflict  areas  involving  race. 

g.  What  areas  are  free  from  race  conflicts?  Why? 

III.  THE  BASES  OF  RACIAL  CONFLICT. 

a.  Attitudes  of  superiority.  How  are  these  expressed? 

b.  Fear  of  loss  of  economic  security  and  standards. 

c.  It  has  been  said  that  government  is  usually,  if  not  always, 
the  instrument  of  the  dominant  class  designed  to  maintain 
its  position  of  supremacy  over  other  classes.  Is  this  borne 
out  in  areas  of  racial  conflict?  How? 

d.  To  what  extent  is  racial  antipathy  based  upon  the  mere 
fact  of  “differentness”  ?  Does  a  provincially-minded  per¬ 
son  think  of  differences  in  others  as  inferiority ?  Give  ex¬ 
amples. 

e.  Ignorance  concerning  the  achievements  of  other  racial 
groups.  Lack  of  contacts  with  the  best  in  other  groups. 


41 


IV.  CONFLICT  SITUATIONS. 

Consider  the  manifestations  of  racial  conflict  as  found  in  the 
United  States.  Complete  this  list,  and  give  illustrations  from 
your  own  experience  or  study. 

a.  Did  the  “emancipation  proclamation”  remove  all  economic 

handicaps  from  the  Negro? 

1.  See  Walter  White,  The  Negro  and  the  Flood,  in  The 
Nation,  June  22,  1927 :  “In  many  of  the  refugee  camps 
Negroes  are  carefully  guarded,  and  when  the  flood  re¬ 
cedes  and  the  land  dries  they  are  released  only  to  the 
landlord  from  whose  plantation  they  came.”  In  the 
same  article  Mr.  White  quotes  from  Daily  News,  Jack- 
son,  Mississippi,  April  30,  as  follows :  “All  labor  in 
authorized  camps  will  be  held  and  not  allowed  to  go  to 
other  sections  of  the  State,  and  after  the  flood  danger 
has  passed  and  conditions  are  such  that  they  can  re¬ 
sume  work,  they  will  be  taken  back  to  their  homes  in 
the  various  sections  of  the  delta  from  which  they 
came.”  Can  this  latter  quotation  conceivably  refer  to 
white  labor?  How  could  you  designate  such  a  labor 
status  as  that  occupied  by  these  workers  who  are  held 
under  armed  guard  and  released  only  to  the  landlords 
from  whose  plantations  they  came? 

2.  To  what  extent  is  Negro  labor  organized?  How  does 
this  affect  his  economic  position  ? 

3.  To  what  extent  can  economic  freedom  be  conferred 
from  without  and  to  what  extent  must  it  be  achieved 
from  within?  To  what  extent  may  the  achievement  of 
economic  freedom  be  retarded  or  promoted  by  the 
dominant  race? 

4.  Can  there  be  real  political  and  religious  freedom  with¬ 
out  economic  freedom?  Why? 

b.  Consider  the  legal  handicaps  imposed  upon  racial  groups 

as  a  phase  of  our  interracial  conflict : 

1.  Longer  Sentences — “In  South  Carolina  a  white  man 
stole  an  automobile  and  was  sentenced  for  thirty  days ; 
on  the  same  day  and  by  the  same  judge  a  Negro  who 
stole  a  bicycle  was  sent  to  the  chain-gang  for  three 
years.”  {And  Who  Is  My  Neighbor ?  page  47.)  Do 
Greeks,  Italians,  Chinese,  and  other  minority  racial 


42 


groups  have  similar  experiences?  Give  examples. 
Often  there  is  lack  of  law  enforcement  in  cases  involv¬ 
ing  only  Negroes.  What  injustice  does  this  involve? 

2.  Lynching — What  is  the  present  situation  as  compared 
with  that  of  previous  years?  In  numbers?  Attitude 
of  press  ?  Attitude  of  civic  and  religious  bodies  ?  1922 
— 58  lynchings ;  1923 — 33 ;  1924 — 16 ;  1925 — 16 ;  1926 
— 29.  Consider  the  effects  upon  those  who  participate 
in  lynching,  and  the  communities  where  they  occur! 

3.  The  Franchise — What  devices  have  been  used  to  dis¬ 
franchise  large  groups  upon  which  the  constitution  by 
intent,  confers  the  right  of  suffrage?  How  would  you 
look  upon  the  sincerity  of  a  state  or  community  that 
protests  against  the  nullification  of  the  Eighteenth 
Amendment  by  a  state  with  “wet”  sentiment,  while  it 
practises  nullification  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  on 
the  ground  of  its  “color”  sentiment? 

c.  Numerous  social  handicaps  act  to  engender  friction  be¬ 
tween  races  living  side  by  side.  Some  of  these  are  too 
subtle  to  permit  of  concrete  illustration,  while  others  are 
strikingly  at  variance  with  a  democratic  society,  to  say 
nothing  of  one  organized  on  a  thoroughly  cooperative 
basis. 

1.  What  is  your  reaction  to  the  news  item  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  chapter? 

2.  The  issue  of  residential  segregation  has  been  set  forth 
prominently  in  the  famous  case  of  Dr.  Sweet  in  De¬ 
troit.  .  .  .  Do  you  know  what  the  Supreme  Court 
ruling  on  coercive  segregation  is  ? 

3.  The  operation  of  “Jim  Crow”  laws  on  public  convey¬ 
ances  is  too  well  known  to  need  illustration.  Similarly 
discriminations  in  hotels,  shops,  and  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  may  be  found  at  any  time  in  any  section  of  the 
country  where  different  races  are  in  contact. 

d.  The  part  played  by  the  press  in  exaggerating  or  alleviat¬ 
ing  racial  conflicts  is  obviously  important.  The  Chicago 
Race  Commission  listed  1,338  Negro  news  items  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  three  Chicago  dailies  over  a  period  of  two  years. 
Almost  exactly  one-half  of  these  dealt  with  riots,  clashes, 
crime  and  vice,  while  only  fifty-eight  dealt  with  construc- 


43 


tive  matters  like  education,  art  and  business.  Note  the 
manner  in  which  the  word  Negro  is  emphasized  in  crime 
news.  Analyze  your  local  newspaper  from  this  standpoint. 

e.  The  immigration  problem  has  given  rise  to  racial  friction 
between  countries  of  Oriental  and  Occidental  races. 

1.  On  July  1,  1924,  an  act  excluding  Japanese  from  the 
United  States  went  into  effect.  The  circumstances  of 
the  passage  of  this  act  contributed  to  magnify  the  ele¬ 
ment  of  friction.  The  day  was  observed  throughout 
Japan  as  “Humiliation  Day”.  Cyrus  E.  Woods,  former 
American  Ambassador  to  Japan,  characterized  the  act 
in  these  words :  “The  Japanese  Exclusion  Act  was,  in 
my  judgment,  an  international  disaster  of  the  first  mag¬ 
nitude, — a  disaster  to  American  diplomacy  in  the  Far 
East,  a  disaster  to  American  business,  a  disaster  to  re¬ 
ligion  and  to  the  effective  work  of  our  American 
churches  in  Japan.” 

2.  During  the  year  1923  state  legislatures  passed  acts  in 
California  and  Washington  designated  to  deny  equality 
of  treatment  in  economic  rights  to  all  persons  ineligible 
for  citizenship. 


V.  PROPOSALS  FOR  SOLVING  RACIAL  CONFLICTS. 

What  do  the  citizens  of  a  country  containing  important  groups 
of  racial  minorities  propose  to  do  about  the  conflicts  which  arise 
under  the  present  order? 

a.  There  are  a  few  individuals  who  seriously  propose  whole¬ 
sale  deportation  of  racial  minorities  as  the  only  solution 
for  the  problems  of  conflict.  This  has  apparently  worked 
very  well  between  Greece  and  Turkey  recently,  in  their 
mutual  exchange  of  populations.  What  are  the  differ¬ 
ences  between  that  case  and  the  situation  in  the  United 
States  ? 

b.  Others  propose  what  might  be  called  a  “parallelism”  for 
racial  situations  such  as  that  in  the  South.  According  to 
this  idea  the  two  races  would  be  entirely  separate,  each  de¬ 
veloping  from  within,  with  an  absolute  minimum  of  inter¬ 
racial  contacts,  having,  however,  some  slight  cooperation 
in  matters  of  government  and  education.  Can  there  be  any 
real  “parallelism”  as  long  as  one  group  is  politically,  so- 


44 


dally  and  economically  disinherited?  What  can  you  say 
for  and  against  such  a  plan? 

c.  Others  accept  the  complex  racial  situation  in  the  United 
States  as  a  challenge  to  those  who  believe  in  thorough¬ 
going  cooperation,  and  are  working  along  all  lines  for  the 
improvement  of  racial  relations.  Some  of  the  methods  of 
cooperation  now  in  use  are  briefly  described  below : 

1.  The  National  Committee  on  American- Japanese  Rela¬ 
tions  has  adopted  the  following  as  its  program : 

(1)  To  cultivate  in  regard  to  Japan  an  informed  and 
rational  public  opinion,  inspired  by  a  friendly 
spirit  and  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  her 
needs,  problems,  and  aspirations. 

(2)  To  advocate  a  square  deal  and  impartial  treat¬ 
ment  for  Japanese  in  the  United  States. 

(3)  To  urge  the  enactment  of  adequate  Federal  legis¬ 
lation  for  the  protection  of  aliens  and  for  the  en¬ 
forcement  of  their  treaty  rights  as  urged  by 
Presidents  Harrison,  McKinley,  Roosevelt,  and 
Taft. 

(4)  To  urge  that,  after  July  1,  1927,  Japanese  be  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  quota  provisions  of  the  new  Immi¬ 
gration  Law,  thus  laying  the  basis  for  right  rela¬ 
tions  between  the  two  countries. 

How  would  you  criticize  this  program?  Since  the 
Exclusion  Act  also  applies  to  other  Oriental  peoples, 
why  has  more  consideration  been  given  to  the  claims 
of  Japan? 

2.  Interracial  Commissions, — national,  state,  and  local, — 
have  been  formed  with  a  view  to  bringing  together 
members  of  our  two  races  for  conference  and  coopera¬ 
tion  in  all  matters  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  races  in 
their  contacts  with  each  other. 

3.  The  Interracial  Commissions  News  Bureau  sends  re¬ 
leases  to  fifteen  hundred  dailies  and  weeklies,  religious 
journals,  college,  labor,  agricultural  and  women’s  pa¬ 
pers,  with  an  aggregate  circulation  of  fifteen  million. 
These  releases  deal  with  all  subjects  that  might  con¬ 
ceivably  promote  better  understanding  and  cooperation 
between  the  races. 


45 


4.  Thousands  of  study  groups,  particularly  among  the 
white  group,  are  designed  to  interest  white  students  in 
the  achievements  and  needs  of  the  colored  group.  The 
Basis  of  Racial  Adjustment  by  Dr.  T.  J.  Woofter,  Jr., 
was  prepared  for  use  with  college  groups. 

5.  Forums  which  bring  together  members  of  our  two 
races  have  become  permanent  features  of  interracial 
cooperation  in  several  cities  in  the  South. 

6.  Efforts  are  being  made,  and  in  some  cases  have  already 
been  successful,  to  secure  equal  appropriations  (in  pro¬ 
portion  to  population)  for  education  among  white  and 
colored  groups  in  Southern  states  and  counties.  In  ad¬ 
dition  there  are  several  large  funds  established  which 
aim  to  provide  better  equipment  for  Negro  schools. 

7.  Campaigns  for  the  prevention  of  lynching  have  been 
conducted  by  numerous  bodies, — civic,  religious,  and 
educational.  On  the  whole  there  has  been  a  marked 
decrease  in  the  number  of  lynchings  since  these  organi¬ 
zations  undertook  an  aggressive  program  for  the  com¬ 
plete  eradication  of  this  cancerous  growth  upon  the 
body  of  society. 

8.  To  further  the  economic  progress  of  the  Negro  group, 
banks  have  been  established  (about  seventy  in  the 
South)  which  are  owned  and  operated  by  Negroes,  as¬ 
sisted  by  cooperation  with  other  banks.  In  many  States 
Farm  Demonstration  Agents  are  teaching  improved 
methods  in  agriculture.  In  Alabama  “seventy-seven 
Negro  demonstration  agents  are  working  among  85,203 
Negro  farmers/’  During  the  World  War  a  Bureau  of 
Negro  Economics  was  established  by  the  government 
with  Dr.  George  E.  Haynes  as  Director. 


VI.  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

a.  In  what  ways  do  you  come  into  direct  contact  with  persons 
of  other  races  ?  Do  these  contacts  represent,  on  the  whole, 
conflict  or  cooperation? 

b.  In  what  ways  are  you  indebted  to  other  races  for  your  re¬ 
ligious,  intellectual,  economic,  and  social  heritage? 


46 


c.  In  what  ways  and  to  what  extent  are  you  dependent  on 
persons  of  other  races  for  your  present  mode  of  living? 

d.  Do  you  believe  a  plan  of  the  most  thoroughgoing  coopera¬ 
tion  between  races  is  practicable?  What  are  the  chief  bar¬ 
riers  now  in  the  way  of  its  achievement? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Hankins,  Frank  H. :  The  Racial  Basis  of  Civilization, 
Knopf,  1926. 

Haynes,  George  E. :  The  Trend  of  the  Races,  Missionary 
Education  Movement,  1922. 

Woofter,  T.  H.,  Jr.:  The  Basis  of  Racial  Adjustments, 
Ginn  &  Co.,  1925. 

Locke,  Alaine:  The  New  Negro. 

Cotton,  W.  A.:  The  Race  Problem  in  South  Africa,  The 
Student  Christian  Movement,  London,  1926. 

Oldham,  J.  H. :  Christianity  and  the  Race  Problem, 

Race  Relations  and  the  Christian  Ideal,  A  Discussion 
Course  for  College  Students,  Association  Press,  1923. 

And  Who  Is  My  Neighbor ?  Published  by  The  Inquiry, 
1924,  129  East  52nd  Street,  New  York  City. 

All  Colors,  Published  by  The  Inquiry,  1926. 

Moncrief,  Maud:  Changing  Attitudes  in  Race  Relations, 
an  unpublished  thesis,  1927.  (Scarritt  College.) 


47 


CHAPTER  VII. 


RELIGION  AND  PEACE. 

I.  PEACE  IDEALS. 

No  religion  has  a  monoply  on  the  ideals  of  cooperation  or 
brotherhood,  and  none  can  throw  stones  at  its  neighbor  for  its 
failures  to  embody  the  principles  of  peace  in  its  practice.  Almost 
all  of  them  have  an  ideal  of  peace. 

1.  Lao-tze,  the  founder  of  Taoism,  wrote  in  the  Toa  Teh 
King :  “To  those  who  are  good  to  me,  I  am  good;  to  those  who 
are  not  good  to  me,  I  am  also  good ;  and  thus  all  get  to  be  good.” 
This  ancient  seer  of  China,  who  lived  more  than  five  centuries 
before  Jesus,  believed  that  “returning  good  for  evil”  was  a 
stronger  force  for  righteousness  than  any  form  of  retaliation. 

2.  Confucius,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Lao-tze,  is  credited 
with  the  saying  that  “within  the  four  seas  all  men  are  brothers,” 
and  also  with  a  negative  statement  of  the  golden  rule. 

3.  “They  shall  beat  their  swords  into  plowshares,  and  their 
spears  into  pruninghooks :  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword  against 
nation,  neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more.”  This  is  an  ideal 
which  Judaism  and  Christianity  hold  in  common.  “All  they  that 
take  the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword,”  said  Jesus. 

4.  Gautama,  usually  known  as  Buddha,  taught  the  law  of 
love.  His  present  day  followers, — the  Federation  of  Buddhists, 
representing  approximately  70,000  temples  and  50,000,000  mem¬ 
bers, — at  a  conference  in  Tokyo  drew  up  a  declaration  of  ideals 
which  includes  these  statements :  “The  everlasting  peace  of  men 
and  the  welfare  of  all  nations  is  our  fundamental  goal  .  .  .  We 
desire  that  all  nations  will  devote  themselves  to  the  establishment 
of  a  peace  system  based  on  the  principles  of  humanity  and  justice.” 

5.  In  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  which  has  been  called  the  New 
Testament  of  Hinduism,  Arjuna  cries  out  against  the  fratricidal 
conflict  of  armies  in  these  words:  “Woe  is  me!  We  are  set  on 
doing  a  great  evil,  since  through  lust  of  the  kingdom  and  its 
pleasures,  we  are  ready  to  slay  our  own  kin.  If  Dhritarashtra’s 
sons,  weapon  in  hand,  should  slay  me  in  battle,  weaponless  and 
unresisting,  that  would  be  far  more  easy  to  bear !”  Gandhi,  modem 


48 


saint  of  Hinduism,  says  it  was  through  reading  the  Bhagavad 
Gita  that  he  came  to  his  philosophy  of  non-violent  resistance  of 
oppression. 

6.  The  Bahai  Movement,  which  originated  in  Persia  in  1844, 
has  for  one  of  its  fundamental  principles  the  following:  “There 
shall  be  universal  peace  amongst  governments,  religions,  races 
and  denizens  of  all  regions.  Today  in  the  world  of  humanity 
the  most  important  matter  is  the  question  of  universal  peace.” 

II.  PRACTICE  FORSAKES  PRECEPT. 

It  will  be  urged  that,  whatever  the  ideals  of  peace  held  by 
the  world’s  great  religions,  they  have  been  often  ignored  in 
practice.  One  looks  in  vain  to  find  serious  religious  opposition, 
from  within,  to  any  war  that  was  ever  fought  by  any  Christian 
country  on  earth.  History  may  record  that  justice  was  on  the 
other  side,  but  the  unrighteous  cause  had  the  substantial  support 
of  the  religiously  minded  people,  no  matter  what  name  their  re¬ 
ligion  bore.  This  has  been  no  less  true  in  our  so-called  enlightened 
age  than  in  the  past;  some  would  believe  that  in  the  Age  of  Na¬ 
tionalism,  in  which  we  have  been  living  for  almost  a  century,  it 
has  been  more  true.  Individuals  have  raised  feeble  protests 
against  the  wars  in  which  their  governments  were  engaged,  but 
the  masses  of  Christians,  as  of  other  religions,  have  always  rallied 
to  the  support  of  their  warring  government. 

No  wonder  many  have  reached  the  conclusion  that  religion 
is  not  a  vital,  practical  force  in  the  life  of  man.  There  are  many 
evidences  indeed  that  Nationalism,  as  a  religion,  has  supplanted 
Christianity,  wherever  relations  with  other  nations  are  involved. 
In  discussing  the  universal  ethics  of  Christianity  and  the  nar¬ 
rower  national  ethics,  Professor  McDougall  says  A  “The  civilized 
man  of  to-day  gives  a  theoretical  allegiance  to  the  universal  system 
only;  but,  when  the  two  systems  conflict,  he  follows  in  the  main 
the  principles  of  national  ethics,  justifying  such  practices,  if  he 
seeks  to  justify  them,  on  the  ground  of  urgent  practical  neces¬ 
sity.”  Professor  McDougal  says  that  it  is  his  “good  sense” 
which  causes  a  man  to  act  on  his  national  ethics  instead  of  the 
universal  ethics  of  Christianity.  Similarly,  he  says :  “the  princi¬ 
ples  of  universal  ethics  .  .  .  demand  that  the  American  Negro 
shall  be  given  social  and  political  equality;  yet,  though  for  sixty 


1McDougal :  Ethics  and  Some  Modern  World  Problems,  p.  46. 


49 


years  the  Federal  law  .  .  .  has  prescribed  such  equality,  the 
good  sense  of  the  Southern  white  man  still  steadily  forbids  him 
to  obey  these  precepts  and  impels  him  in  a  course  of  conduct  in¬ 
consistent  with  his  acknowledged  ethical  principles.”1 

Would  it  not  make  for  a  clarification  of  issues  if  we  frankly 
abandoned  professions  of  Christianity  and,  instead,  declared  our 
allegiance  to  Nationalism  or  Racialism  as  the  case  may  be? 

In  view  of  the  present  situation  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
a  group  of  colored  students  in  South  Carolina  making  the  follow¬ 
ing  statement:2 

“There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  ignore  religion  as  a  vital 
practical  force  in  social  evolution  or  progress.  The  resources 
of  religion  are  not  co-ordinated  with  human  resources  such 
as  economic  prosperity,  scientific  knowledge,  political  and 
social  organization,  etc.  There  is  a  failure  to  realize  the  radical 
challenge  involved  in  a  serious  attempt  to  follow  closely  the 
leadership  of  Jesus  or  to  practice  the  true  principles  of 
Christianity  as  reported  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  colored  college  students  seem  to  be  convinced  that  the 
religion  of  their  white  contemporaries  is  not  the  religion  of 
Jesus  Christ.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  their  observation  that 
the  conduct  of  the  white  people  does  not  ‘square  with’  the 
teachings  of  Jesus,  especially  in  reference  to  the  brotherhood 
of  man.” 


III.  IN  DEFENSE  OF  RELIGION. 

If  all  that  could  be  said  for  religion  were  stated  in  effect  in 
the  preceding  section,  then  religion  would  be  a  thing  of  dismal 
failure  indeed. 

Present-day  religion  is  heir  to  some  problems  which  the  re¬ 
ligion  of  former  days  lacked  the  creative  energy  to  solve.  With 
the  coming  of  industrialism,  nationalism,  and  imperialism,  religion 
was  confronted  with  some  very  new  situations.  Before  it  was 
aware  of  the  fact,  breaking  of  political  and  economic  thought 
had  proceeded  far,  breaking  up  the  older  unity  of  things.  Man 
became  “an  economic  animal”  instead  of  a  spiritual  being.  This 
was  a  reaction  from  an  equally  erroneous  position  which  held 
that  scorn  of  the  gross  material  world  was  an  ornament  to  the 
soul. 

1McDougal :  Ethics  and  Some  Modern  World  Problems,  p.  46. 

2Y.  M.  C.  A.  Conference  of  South  Carolina  Negro  Students. 


50 


But  if  the  problems  of  this  changed  world  are  being  attacked 
anywhere  with  persistence  today,  surely  they  are  being  met  by 
men  for  whom  religion  has  most  vital  significance.  Even  the 
statement  adopted  by  the  Negro  students  of  South  Carolina, 
quoted  above,  was  made  in  a  conference  held  under  distinctly 
religious  auspices.  In  like  manner,  when  one  thinks  of  Indianapo¬ 
lis,  Louisville,  Evanston,  Memphis,  and  Minneapolis,  where  thou¬ 
sands  of  youth  have  grappled  with  the  conflicts  of  industry,  race, 
and  war,  he  is  reminded  that  all  these  great  conferences  have  been 
fostered  by  organized  religion. 

All  over  the  world  it  is  the  religious  spirit  that  is  ushering 
men  into  the  presence  of  our  “perennial  crisis.” 

IV.  MISSIONS  AND  PEACE. 

Consider  the  ways  in  which  the  missionary  enterprise  has 
advanced  the  cause  of  international  cooperation. 

1.  Through  contacts  between  high  types  of  Christian  per¬ 
sonality  and  non-Christian  peoples.  Think  of  the  influence 
of  such  men  as  Bishop  Bashford  in  China,  Paul  Harrison 
in  Arabia,  and  Stanley  Jones  in  India.  Name  others  whom 
you  know. 

2.  Through  fostering  mutual  acquaintance  between  peoples. 
For  long  the  missionary  enterprise  was  the  primary  source 
of  information  concerning  Oriental  and  African  peoples 
for  millions  of  Americans.  What  other  sources  are  in¬ 
creasingly  performing  this  function.  Which  contribute 
to  better  understanding  and  which  do  not? 

3.  Through  opposition  of  missionaries  to  exploitation  of  back¬ 
ward  peoples  today.  Consider  the  attitude  of  the  mission¬ 
aries  to  recent  happenings  in  China.  Note  the  sharp  con¬ 
trast  between  their  attitude  and  that  of  the  American 
Chamber  of  Commerce  in  Shanghai !  Which  makes  for 
peace  ? 

4.  Through  the  ideal  of  cooperation  (brotherhood)  inherent 
in  the  Christian  message. 

5.  A  modern  tendency  of  the  missionary  enterprise  may  be 
seen  in  such  titles  as  Working  With  India  by  D.  J. 
Fleming.  Consider  this  editorial  comment  on  Stanley 
Jones  in  The  Hindu  of  Madras:  “The  interest  of  Dr. 


51 


Jones’  lectures  will  be  in  his  departure  from  the  conven¬ 
tional  lines.  .  .  .  He  has  learned  the  great  lesson  which  the 
people  of  India  have  taught  the  missionaries,  that  of 
distinguishing  between  Christ  and  Christianity,  between 
Jesus  and  the  Christ  of  the  churches.  He  has  also  learnt 
that  one  who  comes  forward  to  teach  must  be  willing,  nay, 
ready  and  anxious  to  learn  from  those  he  wishes  to  teach. 
Not  only  does  he  not  say  anything  against  other  religions, 
but  he  seeks  for  all  that  is  good  and  true  in  those  systems 
and  tries  to  correlate  them  to  Jesus  who  is  to  him  not  the 
name  of  a  dead  hero  of  the  past  but  a  personality  living 
in  the  present  and  commanding  the  future.” 

But  we  must  also  consider  the  temptations  to  which  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  missionary  enterprise  have  been  subjected,  and 
in  many  cases  have  succumbed : 

1.  Intolerance  (which  seems  to  be  steadily  declining).  How 
and  why? 

2.  Through  dark  and  unfair  presentations  of  conditions  in 
non-Christian  lands.  What  motives  work  here? 

3.  Through  emphasis  upon  dogmas  instead  of  sharing  life. 

4.  Through  divisions  often  characterized  by  the  absence  of 
fellowship.  Consider  the  statement  of  Bishop  Brent  in 
the  opening  sermon  at  the  Lausanne  Conference  this  sum¬ 
mer:  “The  hundred  missionary  societies  in  China  today 
are  as  suicidal  for  Christianity  as  the  civil  divisions  are 
to  the  national  peace  and  prosperity.” 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  What  ideals  of  Christianity  bear  directly  upon  the  major 
conflicts  of  today?  Concerning  personality?  Brother¬ 
hood?  Truth?  Life?  God? 

2.  Someone  has  asked  “how  long  young  people  should  be 
subjected  to  the  moral  strain  of  duel  ethics?”  As  for 
example:  (a)  in  the  different  codes  used  toward  mem¬ 
bers  of  their  own  race  and  toward  members  of  another 
race?  (b)  in  the  different  codes  of  friendship,  which  says 
“give,”  and  of  business,  which  says  “take.” 

3.  To  what  extent  is  the  spirit  and  desire  for  cooperation 
today  born  of  religious  idealism? 


52 


4.  Are  religious  conviction  and  tolerance  mutually  exclusive? 

5.  Why  do  men  want  religion  to  maintain  a  comfortable 
ambiguity  toward  commerce,  finance,  ownership,  race,  and 
politics  ? 

6.  What  do  you  consider  the  proper  attitude  of  a  Christian 
toward  war?  (a)  in  time  of  peace?  (b)  in  time  of  war? 

7.  What  evidences  can  you  find  of  a  tendency  to  make  Na¬ 
tionalism  the  supreme  religion  in  the  United  States  today? 

8.  Should  missionaries  have  “gunboat  protection?” 

9.  What  evidences  do  you  have  that  religious  conventions  and 
conferences  take  their  “ringing  resolutions”  seriously? 

10.  List  the  following  in  their  proper  order  as  peace  agencies : 
commerce,  science,  religion,  preparedness,  education. 

11.  Study  William  Penn's  experiment  of  an  unarmed  state. 
Were  the  Puritans  with  their  guns  and  Bibles  safer? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Stabler,  Isabel:  What  the  Churches  are  Doing  to  Abolish 
War ,  National  Council  for  Prevention  of  War,  1924. 

Tawney,  R.  H. :  Religion  and  the  Rise  of  Capitalism , 
Harcourt  Brace,  1926. 

McDougall,  William:  Ethics  and  Some  Modern  World 
Problems ,  Putnam,  1924. 

The  Inquiry:  International  Problems  and  the  Christian 
Way  of  Life ,  Association  Press,  1923. 

Gulick,  S.:  A  Christian  Crusade  for  a  Warless  World , 
Macmillan,  1922. 

Irwin,  Will :  Christ  or  Mars f  Appleton,  1923. 

Coffin,  H.  S. :  A  More  Christian  Industrial  Order,  Mac¬ 
millan,  1920. 


53 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


PROPAGANDA  OR  SCIENTIFIC  HISTORY. 

I.  “PRESERVE  THE  LEGENDS”. 

To  “inspire  the  children  with  patriotism”,  to  “preach  on  every 
page  a  vivid  love  of  America”,  and  to  “preserve  the  legends” ! 
These  were  the  avowed  aims  of  the  American  Legion  of  San 
Jose,  California,  in  effecting  a  change  of  history  textbooks  in  the 
public  schools. 


“By  force  of  public  opinion  let  us  reestablish  Americanism  in 
our  public  schools,  make  a  bonfire  of  the  books  belittling  our 
country  and  expose  those  who  dare  pollute  the  nurseries  of  our 
American  patriotism,”  runs  the  appeal  of  a  contributor  to  the 
New  York  World  recently. 


On  January  22,  1924,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Assembly 
of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  which  contained  the  following  pro¬ 
visions:  “No  book  shall  be  used  or  designated  for  use  in  the 
public  schools  in  any  school  district  in  this  State,  or  of  any  high 
schools  or  normal  schools  of  this  State :  A.  Which  falsifies,  dis¬ 
torts,  or  denies  the  act  of  oppression  recited  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  .  .  .  ,  or  C.  Which  if  the  textbooks  dealing  with 
the  Revolutionary  period  does  not  contain  the  Declaration  in  its  en¬ 
tirety,  or  D.  Which  if  a  comprehensive  textbook  on  American 
history  does  not  stress  the  significance  of  the  Declaration  of  In¬ 
dependence,  its  immediate  effect  and  subsequent  influence  upon 
the  course  of  events  in  other  countries  in  the  world,  or  E.  Which 
belittles,  ridicules,  doubts,  denies,  or  which,  if  a  textbook  dealing 
with  the  Revolutionary  period,  omits  to  mention  the  services  and 
sacrifices  of  American  patriots  by  which  our  national  independ¬ 
ence  was  won,  or  F.  Which  ridicules,  belittles,  or,  if  a  textbook 
for  district  schools,  omits  to  mention  within  its  pertinent  scope 
those  interesting  and  inspiring  episodes  in  early  history  of  Amer¬ 
ica,  that  are  properly  calculated  to  arouse  in  the  children  a  justi¬ 
fiable  pride  in  the  patriotism  and  patriotic  ideals  of  those  by  whose 
constancy,  courage  and  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  our  national  inde¬ 
pendence  was  won  and  later  firmly  established.”  (What  this  bill 
lacks  in  grammatical  correctness,  it  makes  up  in  patriotism.) 


54 


These  are  some  of  the  many  recent  attempts  to  control  the 
teaching  of  history  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States. 
The  forces  back  of  the  attempts  to  nationalize  education  are  many. 
They  are  not  always  fully  conscious  of  the  meaning  of  their  ac¬ 
tivities.  Professor  Hayes  suggests  the  following: 

a.  Politicians  who  conceal  their  paucity  of  convictions  and 
ideals  under  the  broad  folds  of  Old  Glory; 

b.  Actors  who  redeem  poor  performances  by  displaying  at 
the  critical  moment  an  American  flag ; 

c.  Captains  of  industry  who  sense  that  patriotic  fervor  is  less 
injurious  to  the  stock  and  bond  market  than  economic 
criticism ; 

d.  Vain  women  and  vainer  men  who  delight  to  wear  the  rib¬ 
bons  of  ancestrally  patriotic  societies  that  are  presumably 
aristocratic ; 

e.  Individuals  who  make  their  living  by  whipping  up  popular 
emotion  and  popular  prejudice; 

f.  Newspapers,  with  their  enormous  circulation  and  influ¬ 
ence,  which  focus  attention  upon  the  imperative  need  for, 
and  the  fancied  lack  of,  nationalism  in  the  schools. 


II 

WHAT  THE  HISTORIES  CONTAIN. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Association  for  Peace  Education 
studies  are  being  made  in  order  to  ascertain  the  facts  in  reference 
to  the  contents  of  history  textbooks.  On  February  14,  1925,  a 
Conference  on  the  Teaching  of  History  was  held  in  Chicago  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  this  question.  The  full  text  of  the  pa¬ 
pers  read  at  this  conference  may  be  obtained  from  the  Associa¬ 
tion  for  Peace  Education,  5733  Blackstone  Avenue,  Chicago,  for 
25  cents.  An  Analysis  of  the  Emphasis  Upon  War  in  Our  Ele¬ 
mentary  School  Histories  is  published  by  the  same  association 
and  sold  for  10  cents. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  drawn  from  this  analysis  were: 

1.  The  average  history  textbook  devotes  a  disproportionate 
amount  of  space  to  war.  The  war  space  could  be  reduced 
at  least  one-half  without  detracting  from  the  historical 
value  of  the  books. 


55 


2.  The  amount  of  space  devoted  to  peace  by  both  the  texts 
and  the  supplementary  readers  is  almost  negligible. 

3.  The  war  word  content  is  on  the  whole  nationalistic,  biased, 
and,  in  many  cases,  flamboyant.  Its  tawdry  emotionalism 
frequently  violates  every  principle  of  good  literature. 

4.  Very  few  histories  even  approach  the  real  truth  about  war. 
Concealment  and  propaganda  frequently  appear. 

5.  Histories  pay  little  attention  to  the  Edisons,  the  Horace 
Manns,  and  the  Franklins;  they  are  too  busy  depicting  the 
overdrawn  exploits  of  the  Lees,  the  Grants,  and  the  Na¬ 
than  Hales. 

(For  ample  data  on  this  question  the  group  should  have 

available  these  or  similar  pamphlets.) 

Ill 

THE  QUESTION  OF  WAR  GUILT. 

Through  the  unusual  circumstances  of  the  opening  of  the 
German,  Austrian,  and  Russian  archives,  important  official  docu¬ 
ments  bearing  upon  the  origins  of  the  World  War  have  become 
available  to  historians  of  the  generation  in  which  the  war  was 
fought.  The  revolutions  in  these  three  countries  have  furnished 
materials  from  both  sides  of  the  great  conflict.  On  the  basis  of 
these  documents  and  an  understanding  of  pre-war  influences  in 
Europe,  many  are  drawing  conclusions  that  are  at  variance  with 
the  declaration  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  which  fixed  the  whole 
responsibility  for  the  war  upon  Germany. 

♦ 

It  is  important  to  get  beneath  the  propaganda  of  war  days, 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  justice  in  apportioning  blame,  but  for 
the  more  important  purpose  of  understanding  the  causes  of  war 
in  the  modern  world.  Only  when  we  know  the  “whys”  of  war 
can  we  be  confident  about  the  “hows”  of  peace.  Scientific  his¬ 
tory  alone  will  yield  information  on  the  real  causes  of  interna¬ 
tional  conflict.  Propaganda  yields  “unrepresentative  truths”, 
perverted  judgments,  and  confusion  in  planning  the  next  stage  of 
human  progress — the  abolition  of  war. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  state 
control  over  any  branch  of  education? 


56 


2.  Compare  French  and  German  accounts  of  the  World  War. 
What  will  be  the  effects  of  diametrically  opposed  explana¬ 
tions  of  origins,  etc.,  upon  the  rising  generation  in  these 
two  countries?  To  what  extent  can  the  seeds  of  the  next 
war  be  planted  in  the  textbooks  which  deal  with  the  last? 
Give  examples. 

3.  Is  it  true  that  “children  who  are  systematically  indoctrin¬ 
ated  with  nationalism  are  not  prepared  for  a  career  of 
true  patriotism”?  In  what  sense? 

4.  Would  it  be  dangerous  for  a  nation  to  develop  in  its  chil¬ 
dren  a  genuine  capacity  for  criticism  instead  of  a  senti¬ 
mental  devotion  to  the  national  myths? 

5.  Should  there  be  a  neutral  tribunal  set  up  to  consider  the 
question  of  responsibility  for  the  World  War? 

6.  Would  nations  go  to  war  if,  instead  of  liberal  doses  of 
propaganda,  they  were  given  the  unadulterated  truth  ?  Are 
the  falsifications  of  war  propaganda  justified  by  the  neces¬ 
sity  for  creating  national  morale  to  support  the  war? 

7.  In  the  lobby  of  the  University  of  Vienna  there  is  a  marble 
memorial  of  the  World  War.  It  is  the  upturned  face  of  a 
fallen  Austrian  youth  of  flowing  hair  and  a  countenance 
of  unforgettable  strength  and  beauty.  On  the  base  of  the 
memorial  are  three  words :  EHRE,  FREHEIT,  VATER- 
LAND.  (Honor,  Freedom,  Country.)  Were  the  ideals 
for  which  the  youth  in  the  Allied  countries  consented  to 
fight  nobler  than  these? 

8.  In  what  ways  can  we  partially  overcome  what  many  feel 
to  be  utter  helplessness  in  the  face  of  propaganda? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Owen,  R.  L. :  The  Russian  Imperial  Conspiracy,  1927. 
Barnes,  H.  E. :  Genesis  of  the  World  War,  Knopf,  1926. 

Hamlin,  C.  H. :  The  War  Myth  in  United  States  History, 
Vanguard  Press,  1927. 

Lippman,  Walter:  Public  Opinion,  Harcourt  Brace,  1922. 

Creel,  George:  How  We  Advertised  America,  Harper’s, 
1920. 

Gibbs,  Phillip:  Now  It  Can  Be  Told,  Harper’s,  1920. 
Nock:  The  Myth  of  a  Guilty  Nation,  Huebsch,  1922. 
Peat:  The  Inexcusable  Lie,  Barse  &  Hopkins. 


57 


CHAPTER  IX. 


FORCES  TENDING  TO  PERPETUATE  A 
CONFLICT  SYSTEM. 

Every  worker  for  cooperation  should  understand  the  nature 
and  strength  of  those  forces  which,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
tend  to  perpetuate  the  status  quo — which  means  perpetuating 
the  conflict  system.  It  is  difficult  to  group  all  such  forces  together 
under  a  single  description,  so  varied  in  purpose  and  activity  are 
they.  These  forces  range  all  the  way  from  vested  interests  which 
profit  in  the  sale  of  war  materials  to  those  timid  souls  who  are 
fearful  of  all  social  change.  Some  are  devoted  to  the  status  quo 
because  their  present  circumstances  are  comfortable,  and  some 
because  they  lack  the  creative  imagination  to  think  beyond  things 
as  they  are. 

I.  PATRIOTIC  ORGANIZATIONS1 

It  would  be  impossible  to  list  here  all  the  patriotic  organizations 
which  oppose  social  change.  In  some  the  membership  is  a  fair 
cross-section  of  American  life,  and  not  all  of  their  activities  are 
reactionary  in  nature.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is 
no  intention  of  making  sweeping  indictments  against  these  socie¬ 
ties. 

In  general  the  activities  of  these  organizations  are  directed 
against  “radicalism,”  “pacifism,”  and  “Bolshevism.”  Little  care 
is  taken  to  distinguish  between  these  menacing  “isms,”  and  they 
are  used  with  such  broad  meanings  that  they  cover  a  multitude 
of  things.  In  fact,  almost  anything  which  suggests  a  reorganiza¬ 
tion  of  world-wide  activities  on  cooperative  bases. 

A.  Their  activities  may  be  studied  along  these  lines : 

1.  Attacks  on  Peace  Organizations, — often  involving  seri¬ 
ous  misrepresentations; — the  tendency  to  identify  the 
whole  peace  movement  with  the  “red  menace”  is  strong. 


iHapgood :  “Professional  Patriots,”  a  complete  survey  of  some  of 
these  organizations. 


58 


2.  Support  of  a  strong  preparedness  program; — many 
professional  military  men  are  prominent  in  these  or¬ 
ganizations; — manufacturers  of  chemicals  and  other 
war  materials  are  large  contributors. 

3.  Opposition  to  Organized  Labor, — it  is  surprising  to 
find  such  overwhelming  numbers  of  capitalists  who  are 
opposed  to  organized  labor  among  the  leaders  of  these 
societies ; — the  tendency  to  identify  “open  shop”  and 
“Americanism”  is  most  pronounced. 

4.  Opposition  to  welfare  legislation, — based  in  part,  it 
seems,  on  dislike  of  state  interference  in  industry. 

II.  NEW  POLITICAL  PHILOSOPHIES. 

In  the  main  the  organizations  represented  above  stand  for  an 
exaggerated  capitalistic  society.  At  least  two  new  theories  for  the 
method  of  social  and  political  organization  are  claiming  attention 
in  the  post-war  world.  Both  are  in  part  products  of  the  world 
war  and  the  conditions  which  led  up  to  the  war.  They  are  Rus¬ 
sian  Communism  and  Fascism.  It  seems  that  both  these  programs 
tend  to  perpetuate  a  conflict  system ;  and  must  be  considered  with 
the  forces  opposed  to  a  genuine  democratic  cooperation  between 
all  the  elements  that  compose  modern  society. 

A.  COMMUNISM. 

Note  the  striking  similarity  between  the  Russian  Communist 
program  for  social  change  and  the  ancient  apocalypticism  of  Ju¬ 
daism  and  early  Christianity  (still  held  by  a  few)  : 

a.  The  total  wickedness  of  the  present  world  order  (of 
capitalism). 

b.  The  elect  community  of  believers,  within,  but  not  of,  the 
present  order  (i.e.  the  Communist  Party). 

c.  The  coming  catastrophic  overthrow  of  the  present  order 
(by  divine  intervention  in  apocalypticism)  by  the  social 
revolution. 

d.  The  new  order  of  righteousness  is  not  built  upon  but  sup¬ 
plants  the  old  order  of  iniquity. 

What  are  the  inherent  limitations  in  all  class  struggles  that 
make  it  almost  inevitably  intolerant  and  destructive?  Is  this  ap¬ 
parent  on  both  sides  of  the  struggle  ? 


59 


B.  THE  FASCIST  PROGRAM. 


At  least  five  main  principles  are  involved  in  the  Fascist  pro¬ 
gram  : 

1.  Cooperation  between  labor  and  capital  under  state  super¬ 
vision  and  with  compulsory  arbitration. 

2.  Representation  on  the  basis  of  occupation  as  well  as  of 
residence. 

3.  Extension  of  the  control  of  the  government  over  freedom 
of  speech  and  of  the  press. 

4.  Increase  of  the  power  of  the  central  government  over  local 
government. 

5.  In  the  central  government,  concentration  of  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  Premier. 

(This  summary  is  made  by  the  Foreign  Policy  Association  in 
its  Information  Service,  June  7,  1926,  which  contains  a  full  ac¬ 
count  of  recent  legislation  in  Italy.) 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  What  are  advantages  and  the  dangers  of  the  Fascist  pro¬ 
gram  ? 

2.  In  1926  a  bill  was  passed  which  substitutes  for  elective 
offices  an  executive  (called  a  “Podesta”)  appointed  by  the 
central  government,  in  all  communes  of  Italy  having  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  less  than  5,000.  This  law  applies  to  more  than 
7,000  of  the  approximately  9,000  communes  in  Italy.  It 
means  the  abolition  of  mayoralty  elections  in  these  towns. 
Compare  what  remains  of  democracy  in  this  system  with 
that  which  can  be  found  in  a  senatorial  election  where 
thousands  of  votes  are  bought  at  ten  dollars  each! 

3.  Noting  the  press  campaign  on  Russia  in  our  country,  is 
there  a  corresponding  attempt  to  discredit  the  Fascist 
government  ?  Why  ? 

4.  Read  an  authoritative  account  of  Fascism  in  The  Political 
Doctrine  of  Fascism  by  Alfredo  Rocco,  Minister  of  Jus¬ 
tice  in  the  Government  of  Italy.  This  statement  has  the 
unqualified  endorsement  of  Premier  Mussolini.  (It  is  pub¬ 
lished  by  International  Conciliation,  44  Portland  Street, 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  may  be  obtained  for  five  cents  a 
copy.) 


60 


III.  THE  PRESS  AND  AN  INTERNATIONAL  CRISIS. 


The  possibilities  for  creating  international  misunderstanding 
and  friction  are  well  illustrated  by  the  way  in  which  a  large 
section  of  the  press  in  the  United  States  reported  the  events  sur¬ 
rounding  the  bombardment  of  Nanking  late  in  March,  1927.  Mr. 
Frederick  Moore  reporting  for  the  New  York  Times,  unquestion¬ 
ably  a  most  influential  role,  furnished  the  following  “news”  to 
the  American  Public: 

1.  Attempts  to  discredit  the  strength  of  the  Nationalist 

Movement  in  China: 

a.  Failure  of  the  Nationalist  forces  to  take  Shanghai  “is 
now  regarded  by  most  competent  observers  as  a  fore¬ 
gone  conclusion.”  (March  7.) 

b.  Concerning  the  safety  of  Shanghai  “There  is  absolute 
security  from  without,  no  equal  Chinese  force  being 
in  the  vicinity.”  (March  4.) 

c.  He  was  informed  that  “reports  of  large,  well  disciplined 
Chinese  armies  being  in  the  vicinity  are  totally  incor¬ 
rect.” 

d.  The  defending  army  in  Shanghai  was  “considered  the 
best  in  China,  excluding  Chang  Tso-lin’s.” 

e.  The  latter’s  was  an  army  “infinitely  better  than  the 
Southern  army.”  Its  position  was  reported  as  “incal¬ 
culably  stronger.” 

f.  “The  long-heralded  battle  of  Shanghai  becomes  daily 
more  and  more  unlikely.”  (March  9.) 

g.  Four  days  before  the  Nationalist  armies  marched  into 
Shanghai,  he  reported  :  “The  coolest  and  best  informed 
foreigners  still  agree  that  Shanghai  is  unlikely  to  be 
taken  by  the  Southern  armies  for  many  weeks,  possibly 
months.” 

2.  Calling  for  military  action  by  the  American  forces  in 

China,  Mr.  Moore  used  the  “news”  columns  in  this  fash¬ 
ion: 

a.  Americans  in  Shanghai  were  reported  as  “complaining 
of  the  inactivities  of  the  American  Marines.” 

b.  Failure  of  the  Marines  to  take  more  aggressive  action 
was  “commented  on  as  not  being  adequate  defense  of 
American  lives  and  property.” 


61 


c.  The  Marines  themselves  were  “anxious  for  more  active 
duty.” 

d.  The  reporter  declared  that  only  a  “punitive  expedition” 
could  “reestablish  a  tenable  condition  for  foreigners 
among  the  Chinese”  in  the  Yangtse  Valley. 

e.  “Only  gunfire  will  save  missions  as  well  as  business 
houses,”  he  wrote  on  March  27. 

f.  Military  action  by  the  United  States  forces  “would 
reestablish  the  missionaries  as  well  as  the  business  men, 
and  it  is  also  true  that  it  could  be  accomplished  with 
comparatively  few  troops,  the  Chinese  armies  being 
ridiculously  weak,  their  warfare  childish  in  character 
and  the  morale  of  their  armies  negligible.” 

3.  Mr.  Moore’s  picture  of  China  and  the  Chinese : 

a.  “Interference  on  a  large  scale”  is  “the  only  hope  against 
Bolshevism.” 

b.  Any  assurances  given  by  the  Nationalists  are  described 
as  “valueless.”  (March  23.) 

c.  The  Nationalists  are  “unable  or  unwilling”  to  fulfill 
their  assurances.  (March  24.) 

Their  promises  are  “empty.”  (March  26.) 

e.  China  is  confronted  with  “the  alternative  of  brigandage 
or  Bolshevism.”  (March  8.) 

f.  While  writing  he  hears  shots  which  “may  be”  an  at¬ 
tempt  to  assassinate  British  police  in  Shanghai.  (March 
21.) 

g.  Reported  that  the  Nationalists  in  Shanghai  intend  to 
“attack  the  French  and  international  settlements.” 
(March  26.) 

h.  “Everywhere”  the  Nationalist  leaders  “have  been  mer¬ 
cilessly  decapitating  and  shooting  their  own  Chinese.” 
(March  26.) 

i.  He  describes  China  as  “apparently  incapable  of  under¬ 
standing”  the  fine  motives  of  Great  Britain  which 
“meant  the  Chinese  well.” 

j.  “Ignorance  and  distress  are  too  widespread  to  permit 
her  to  understand  kindness  with  the  authority  of  force.” 

k.  The  Chinese  are  “without  schools  worthy  of  the  name.” 

l.  They  have  “not  a  single  responsible  law  court.” 


62 


m.  The  foreigner  would  teach  the  Chinese  a  lesson  by  let¬ 
ting  them  alone  entirely  for  a  “decade”  or  so  “to  realize 
what  they  have  lost.” 

n.  Missionaries  who  profess  to  see  hope  for  China  on  her 
own  score  are  “inclined  impractically  to  theorize  about 
equality.” 

o.  It  is  doubtful  whether  “a  republic  is  possible  for  a 
country  .  .  .  with  no  native  university  equaling  an 
American  high  school.” 

(For  the  above  see  The  New  Republic,  April  13,  1927,  “Mr. 

Moore’s  Private  War.”) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

Hapgood,  Norman:  Professional  Patriots,  Albert  and 
Charles  Boni,  1927. 

Boeckel,  Florence :  The  Power  of  the  Press  for  Peace  and 
War,  National  Council  for  Prevention  of  War,  1924. 

Lane,  Winthrop:  Military  Training  in  Schools  and  Col¬ 
leges,  Committee  on  Militarism  in  Education,  1925. 

.  See  Bibliography  on  Communism  in  Chapter  I. 


63 


CHAPTER  X. 


AGENCIES  WORKING  FOR  COOPERATION 

“As  the  nineteenth  century  advanced  and  the  Industrial  Rev¬ 
olution  progressed  and  the  most  different  nationalities  and  the 
most  diverse  localities  were  knit  together  by  railways,  steamships, 
telegraphs,  and  cables,  the  number  and  importance  of  international 
undertakings  rapidly  increased.  There  was  the  prodigious  in¬ 
crease  of  foreign  travel  and  foreign  trade.  There  was  the  re¬ 
markable  growth  of  science  and  popular  education,  restricted  to 
no  one  land  and  to  no  one  nation.  There  was  the  marked  tend¬ 
ency  everywhere  to  adopt  uniform  standards  of  clothing,  food, 
and  architecture,  as  well  as  of  literature,  science,  and  politics. 
There  was  the  multiplication  of  international  societies  and  con¬ 
gresses.”1 

The  Bureau  of  International  Organizations,  a  department 
of  the  Secretariat  of  the  League  of  Nations,  publishes  a  Hand¬ 
book  which  lists  three  hundred  sixty  International  Organizations. 
Almost  all  of  these  have  come  into  existence  within  the  past 
fifty  years. 

Some  of  the  earliest  international  organizations  formed  were : 

(1)  The  Universal  Telegraph  Union  (1875) —  30  nations. 

(2)  For  using  the  metric  system  (1875)  —  23  “ 

(3)  Universal  Postal  Union  (1878)  —  60  “ 

(4)  The  International  Parliamentary  Union  (1889). 

I 

An  understanding  of  existing  agencies  of  cooperation  is  ob¬ 
viously  necessary  for  further  progress  in  eliminating  destructive 
conflict  from  the  world.  It  is  therefore  suggested  that  a  study 
be  undertaken  along  the  lines  indicated  below. 

A.  The  League  of  Nations — its  covenant — its  record  for 
dealing  with  international  crises — its  limitations — its 
humanitarian  and  intellectual  work — the  extent  to  which 
the  United  States  is  now  cooperating — a  program  for 
further  possible  cooperation. 


i-Hayes :  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe,  p.  682. 


64 


B.  The  Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice- — its  es¬ 
tablishment  and  relation  to  the  League  of  Nations — its 
constitution — its  record. 

C.  The  International  Labor  Office — its  connection  with  the 
League  of  Nations — its  General  Conference — questions 
handled — results  achieved. 

D.  The  Pan-American  Union — its  history — its  objectives — 
its  meetings — its  achievements. 

E.  The  Locarno  Pact — how  negotiated — signatories — pro¬ 
visions — relation  to  League  of  Nations — its  possibilities 
in  suggesting  other  similar  pacts. 

F.  The  Washington  and  the  Geneva  Conference  on  Limi¬ 
tation  of  Armaments — a  comparison — the  conference 
idea. 

G.  The  Institute  of  Pacific  Relations — membership  and 
meetings — questions  dealt  with  and  their  importance  for 
the  future. 

II 

In  the  foregoing  section,  organizations  of  a  distinctly  inter¬ 
national  character  were  considered.  It  will  be  well  for  us  to 
know  something  about  the  American  organizations  formed  for 
the  promotion  of  cooperation  along  international,  industrial,  and 
interracial  lines.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  mention  all  of  them 
by  name.  The  National  Council  for  Prevention  of  War  has 
published  a  directory  of  “Organizations  in  the  United  States 
That  Promote  Better  International  Understanding  and  World 
Peace.”  It  lists  thirty  five  National  Organizations  Formed  Pri¬ 
marily  to  Promote  World  Peace.  Twenty  six  of  these  have  been 
founded  since  the  beginning  of  the  World  War.  Is  this  signi¬ 
ficant?  Under  the  head  of  State  and  Local  Organizations  Formed 
Primarily  to  Promote  World  Peace  twenty  eight  organizations  are 
listed,  all  but  one  of  which  were  founded  during  or  after  the 
World  War. 

The  President  of  the  Reserve  Officers'  Association  of  the 
United  States  sent  out  a  letter  concerning  this  Directory,  in 
which  he  said:  “If — what  you  learn  from  that  publication  of 
the  scope  and  strength  of  the  pacifist  opposition  to  Defense  does 
not  secure  your  IMMEDIATE  and  ACTIVE  participation  in 


65 


our  work,  then  may  God  help  the  National  Defense  Act !  It  will 
soon  be  beyond  our  aid!  .  .  .  Numerically  our  strength  is  piti¬ 
fully  small  compared  with  those  leagued  against  us.  Spiritually, 
however,  our  Cause  is  a  powerful  FORCE  provided  we  can  put 
it  to  work.”  Do  you  consider  the  strength  of  the  peace  move¬ 
ment  so  great  as  to  justify  the  fears  of  the  writer  of  this  letter? 

These  organizations  are  essentially  one  in  purpose,  but  are 
sometimes  in  sharp  disagreement  on  the  method  of  achieving 
world  cooperation. 

A.  “A  Clearing-house  of  Information  and  Activity.”  The 
National  Council  for  Prevention  of  War,  532  Seventeenth 
St.,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C.  Thirty  five  organizations 
affiliated  in  1927.  Publishes  a  nlonthly  News  Bulletin. 

B.  Advocating  Adherence  of  the  United  States  to  the  Per¬ 
manent  Court  of  International  Justice,  and  ultimately  the 
membership  of  the  United  States  in  the  League  of  Nations. 
— League  of  Nations  Non-Partisan  Association,  6  East 
39th  St.,  New  York  City.  Publishes  The  League  of  Na¬ 
tions  News. 

C.  For  the  Outlawry  of  War — American  Committee  for  the 
Outlawry  of  War,  134  South  LaSalle  St.,  Chicago.  Dis¬ 
tributes  articles  and  pamphlets  on  this  topic  by  such  men 
as  Senator  Borah,  Professor  Dewey,  and  Dr.  C.  C.  Morri¬ 
son. 

D.  Dealing  with  Military  Training — Committee  on  Militarism 
In  Education,  387  Bible  House,  Astor  Place,  New  York 
City.  For  the  “Abolition  of  compulsory  drill  in  colleges 
and  universities ;  abolition  of  all  military  drill  in  high 
schools.” 

E.  Based  on  Jesus’  Way  of  Life — The  Fellowship  of  Re¬ 
conciliation,  383  Bible  House,  Astor  Place,  New  York  City; 
Youth  Section,  Fellowship  of  Reconciliation,  386  Bible 
House,  Astor  Place,  New  York  City;  Fellowship  for  a 
Christian  Social  Order,  Room  505,  347  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York  City. 

F.  Organizations  for  Youth — World's  Student  Christian  Fed¬ 
eration  (groups  in  25  countries),  347  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  City;  Youth  Section,  F.  O.  R.  (see  above); 
National  Board  of  Young  Women's  Christian  Associcu- 


66 


tions,  600  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York  City;  National 
Council  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations ,  34 7 
Madison  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

G.  Among  the  Churches — Federal  Council  of  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America  maintains  a  Department  of  Research 
and  Education  which  publishes  an  Information  Service; 
also  has  a  Commission  on  the  Church  and  Race  Relations; 
and  a  Commission  on  International  Justice  and  Goodwill , 
— all  having  offices  at  105  East  22nd  St.,  New  York  City. 

American  Friends  Service  Committee,  20  South  12th  St., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Church  Peace  Union,  70  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Peace  Association  of  Friends  in  America,  615  National 
Road,  Richmond,  Indiana. 

World  Alliance  for  International  Friendship  Through  the 
Churches,  70  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

H.  Organizations  for  Women — Women's  International  League 

for  Peace  and  Freedom,  522  Seventeeth  St.,  N.  W.,  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C. 

Women's  Peace  Society,  20  Vesey  St.,  New  York  City. 
Women's  Peace  Union,  39  Pearl  St.,  New  York  City. 

I.  Specializing  in  History — Association  for  Peace  Education, 
5733  Blackstone  Ave.,  Chicago,  Ill. 

J.  Specializing  in  Research — Foreign  Policy  Association,  18 
East  41st  St.,  New  York  City. 

K.  Specializing  in  Industry — League  for  Industrial  Democ¬ 
racy,  70  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 

L.  General — American  Peace  Society,  Colorado  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Association  to  Abolish  War,  7  Wellington  Terrace,  Brook¬ 
line,  Mass. 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace,  2  Jackson 
Place,  Washington,  D.  C. 

World  Peace  Association,  Greenville,  Iowa. 

World  Peace  Foundation,  40  Mt.  Vernon  St.,  Boston, 
Mass. 

M.  War  Resisters  League,  132  West  12th  St.,  New  York  City. 


67 


Ill 


“Ideas  and  not  navies  rule  the  sea ;  ideas,  not  armies  dominate 
the  land,”  declared  Walter  Williams,  dean  of  the  School  of  Jour¬ 
nalism  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  addressing  the  National 
Editorial  Association.  “Lower  tolls  and  thus  make  available  the 
avenues  of  communication  between  nations,  and  free  news  sources 
from  the  poison  of  interested  propaganda,  and  we  thereby  help 
to  make  a  sick  world  well.  Permit  these  avenues  to  be  clogged, 
congested  and  corrupted — let  them  remain  inadequate — and  the 
fever  of  war  returns  apace.” 

The  press,  as  an  agency  working  for  cooperation,  is  among 
the  most  influential.  The  liberal  press,  including  several  well 
known  weeklies,  supplies  adequate  and  accurate  information 
concerning  the  relationships  of  mankind, — racially,  industrially, 
and  internationally.  Without  the  information  available  from  this 
quarter  one  may  easily  be  helpless  before  the  great  propagandist 
drives  of  “interested”  journalism. 


68 


CHAPTER  XI. 


WHAT  YOUTH  CAN  DO. 

Governments  are  absolutely  dependent  upon  youth  to  man  the 
war-machine.  It  is  therefore  no  impertinence  for  youth  to  offer 
its  resources  for  building  a  world  of  fellowship.  In  war  times 
youth  is  hailed  as  “the  saviour  of  civilization.”  Elder  statesmen 
do  not  hint  that  youth  is  too  immature  to  serve  in  that  capacity. 
It  is  therefore  the  peculiar  right  of  youth  to  raise  its  voice  in 
protest  against  the  destructive  conflicts  of  the  old  order,  and  to 
assert  its  leadership  in  the  movement  for  universal  cooperation. 

I 

With  many  of  the  agencies  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  chapter 
youth  can  work  as  individuals  on  the  same  basis  as  others.  Does 
such  cooperation  with  existing  general  agencies  exhaust  the  possi¬ 
bilities  of  a  youth  contribution  to  the  solution  of  conflict  problems, 
or  do  we  need,  in  addition,  distinctive  youth  organizatoins  and 
distinctive  youth  approaches  to  some  of  these  problems?  Can  a 
“youth  movement”  be  justified?  If  not,  why  not?  If  so,  what 
forms  should  it  take?  What  objectives  should  it  strive  to  reach? 
Is  there  a  “youth  movement”  in  America  now  ?  Should  there  be  ? 
What  is  necessary  to  a  youth  movement?  A  distinguished  and 
sympathetic  leader  is  credited  with  the  observation  that  “there  is 
no  revolt  of  youth  in  this  country,  except  a  revolt  against  the 
decencies.”  Is  he  right? 

II 

Aside  from  general  study,  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  over¬ 
stated,  students  and  young  people  are  engaging  in  many  forms 
of  cooperation  along  industrial,  interracial  and  international  lines. 
An  efficient  learning  process  is  seen,  more  and  more,  to  involve 
participation  in  actual  situations.  Youth,  at  least,  seems  to  be 
aware  that  long-range  handling  of  social  conflicts  is  ineffective. 
Good  talk  is  undoubtedly  essential  for  the  communication  of 
ideas,  but  education  is  not  solely  a  “talking-process.”  Some  of 
the  forms  of  youth  activity  are  presented  below.  You  may  know 
of  others,  or  have  suggestions  for  some  that  have  not  yet  been 
tried.  Criticize  these  freely. 


69 


A.  STUDENTS  IN  INDUSTRY. 


1.  Joint  recruiting  agreed  upon  by  all  interested  agencies — 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  American  Friends  Service  Committee, 
the  Church  League  for  Industrial  Democracy,  the  Fellowship  of 
Reconciliation,  the  Fellowship  for  a  Christian  Social  Order, 
League  for  Industrial  Democracy,  Continuation  Committee  of  the 
Evanston  Conference,  and  the  Social  Service  Commission  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  Churches. 

2.  Four  groups  conducted  during  the  summer  of  1927,  in  four 
cities : 

a.  Chicago — conducted  by  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  with  fifteen 
college  girls. 

b.  Philadelphia — conducted  by  the  American  Friends  Ser¬ 
vice  Committee  with  six  college  students  and  six  indus¬ 
trial  workers  for  joint  discussion  of  industrial  prob¬ 
lems. 

c.  Detroit — Conducted  by  the  Michigan  State  Commit¬ 
tee  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  with  forty  college  men. 

d.  New  York — conducted  by  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  the 
Social  Service  Commission  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches,  with  fourteen  students. 

3.  To  make  closest  contacts  possible  with  the  realities  of  in¬ 
dustrial  life  the  students 

a.  found  their  own  jobs,  often  with  much  difficulty; 

b.  lived  on  the  wages  they  received; 

c.  lived  in  workers’  families  or  in  laborers’  hotels ; 

d.  kept  their  identity  as  collegians  unknown. 

4.  Their  seminar  meetings  discussed: 

a.  unemployment,  b.  living  wages,  c.  unions,  d.  open 
shop.  e.  employee  representation,  f.  race  problems  in  in¬ 
dustry.  g.  labor  legislation,  h.  safety,  i.  free  employment 
bureaus,  j.  workers’  education,  k.  non-financial  incen¬ 
tives.  1.  research. 

(The  foregoing  material  on  Students  in  Industry  is  taken 
from  Information  Service,  Federal  Council  of  Churches,  Sept. 
10,  1927.) 

R.  YOUTH  IN  INTERRACIAL  RELATIONS. 

1.  On  October  22,  1926,  a  meeting  of  the  Student  Interracial 
Committee  (of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  the  South- 


70 


ern  Division)  was  held  at  Fisk  University.  Youth  leaders  from 
both  races  met  in  fellowship  and  conference  for  the  discussion  of 
interracial  problems  in  the  South.  The  presiding  officer  opened 
the  meeting  with  these  words  :  “Fellowship  leads  to  better  under¬ 
standing,  unified  thinking,  a  sense  of  seriousness  of  purpose,  a 
vision  of  the  bigness  of  the  task,  a  realization  of  dependence 
one  upon  another,  appreciation  of  each  one’s  contribution,  and 
a  sense  of  responsibility.” 

2.  Several  meetings  of  the  State  Student  Volunteer  Unions  in 
the  South  have  been  interracial  in  their  composition  in  recent 
years.  The  1927  meeting  of  the  Tennessee  Union  was  of  this 
character.  A  study  of  the  educational  significance  of  this  meet¬ 
ing  was  made  by  one  of  its  members,  some  of  the  results  noted 
being  as  follows: 

a.  An  octogenarian  who  attended  the  sessions  of  the  con¬ 
ference  wrote :  “I  enjoyed  it  as  an  evidence  of  the 
progress  made  by  youth  of  today  over  those  of  my 
day  sixty  years  ago.” 

b.  A  white  student  wrote:  “Yes  indeed,  I  unlearned 
much.”  Another  commented:  “I  was  delighted  with 
the  response  of  the  student  groups,  and  a  burning  de¬ 
sire  came  to  make  such  relations  permanent  under  vary¬ 
ing  circumstances.”  Another :  “I  saw  for  the  first 
time  educated  Negroes.” 

c.  A  Negro  delegate  noted  a  change  in  his  thinking  with 
these  words :  “The  Conference  has  wiped  out  of  my 
heart  the  bitterness  of  many  years,  and  I  am  going 
back  to  Liberia  to  encourage  the  missionaries  in  their 
work.  Before  I  came  to  this  meeting  I  had  determined 
to  return  to  my  country  to  do  everything  in  my  power 
against  Christianity.”  Another  made  this  discovery: 
“When  I  came  to  this  Conference  I  was  not  interested 
in  Christ,  for  I  thought  He  was  for  white  people  only. 
I  am  going  back  feeling  that  He  is  for  me  too.”  An¬ 
other  said,  “I  can  go  back  to  my  college  and  pray  for 
the  first  time  in  a  long  time.” 

d.  Growing  out  of  the  Interracial  and  International  Teas 
of  this  conference  one  of  the  institutions  is  reported 
to  have  scheduled  such  gatherings  by-monthly  where 
the  students  of  the  different  races  may  meet  for  social 
and  intellectual  fellowship. 


71 


3.  Many  students  recently  have  been  pursuing  graduate  studies 
in  race  relations,  making  careful  and  thorough  analyses  of  all 
phases  of  the  question.  Surely  the  racial  situation  in  the  United 
States  provides  the  amplest  laboratory  facilities  for  fruitful  re¬ 
search  in  this  field.  What  are  the  values  for  youth  in  such 
original  investigations  as  compared  with  the  studies  of  older  men 
and  women ?  Are  there  any  unique  values  for  interracial  co opera¬ 
tion  ?  A  survey  of  “Changing  Attitudes  in  Race  Relations  as  Re¬ 
vealed  by  a  Study  of  Nashville  Students”  was  made  this  year 
by  a  graduate  student.  One  hundred  twenty-six  white  students 
from  four  institutions  and  one  hundred  twenty-seven  Negro  stu¬ 
dents  answered  suestions  submitted  to  them.  The  following 
table  reveals  some  of  the  results  of  the  study: 


Whites 

Negroes 

YES 

NO 

YES 

NO 

Attended  interracial  forum . 

40 

81 

49 

67 

Found  forum  valuable . 

36 

8 

51 

2 

Had  read  on  Race  Relations . 

102 

19 

121 

54 

Attended  social  functions . 

49 

70 

145 

22 

Believed  interracial  social  functions 

promote  better  relations . 

36 

35 

101 

2 

4.  In  several  Southern  cities  Interracial 

Forums 

;  have 

been 

organized  since  the  Student  Volunteer  Convention,  which  met  in 
Indianapolis  in  December,  1923.  Students  from  white  and  Negro 
colleges  meet  at  least  twice  a  month  for  the  discussion  of  what¬ 
ever  topics  may  be  of  mutual  interest,  minimizing  rather  than 
emphasizing  the  question  of  racial  relations  in  the  discussions. 

C.  YOUTH  IN  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

1.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Friends  Service  Com¬ 
mittee  a  new  venture  was  undertaken  during  the  summer  of  1927. 
Eighteen  young  people  made  up  nine  teams  which  “caravaned” 
in  different  rural  sections  of  the  United  States,  addressing  many 
groups  of  people  on  the  general  subject  of  peace.  The  Commit¬ 
tee  reports  encouragement  from  the  results.  Information  con¬ 
cerning  these  “peace  caravans”' may  be  obtained  from  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Friends  Service  Committee,  20  South  12th  St.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

2.  A  Student  Project  in  Building  International  Understanding, 
“a  plan  that  has  worked,”  is  the  title  of  a  leaflet  that  may  be 


72 


obtained  from  the  Council  of  Christian  Associations,  600  Lexing¬ 
ton  Avenue,  or  347  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  The  plan 
calls  for  an  International  Goodwill  Team  which  secures  and  dis¬ 
tributes  information  relating  to  international  relations,  provides 
speakers  for  meetings,  and  assists  young  people  in  planning 
programs. 

3.  Every  year  thousands  of  American  youth  travel  in  Europe. 
Not  all  of  these  establish  contacts  or  find  experiences  which  make 
for  international  understanding,  but  many  do,  either  independ¬ 
ently  or  under  the  auspices  of  organizations  having  for  their 
specific  purpose  personal  acquaintance  with  youth  in  other  lands. 

4.  Many  youth  leaders  are  found  in  the  Eddy  Seminar  which 
makes  annual  visits  to  the  leading  countries  of  Europe  for  study. 

5.  Many  students  find  profitable  social  and  intellectual  fellow¬ 
ship  with  the  large  numbers  of  foreign  students  who  attend 
American  institutions.  International  House  in  New  York  City  is 
a  great  experiment  in  international  goodwill.  Students  from  ap¬ 
proximately  fifty  nations,  attending  many  institutions  in  New 
York  City,  live  under  one  roof,  with  adequate  provision  for  their 
social  and  intellectual  fellowship. 

6.  The  Student  Friendship  Fund  is  maintained  by  the  con¬ 
tributions  of  American  students  for  the  aid  of  students  in  Euro¬ 
pean  countries  where  the  World  War  seriously  handicapped  the 
student  group. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  Consider  the  origin  of  the  modern  missionary  movement, 
and  also  the  origin  of  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement. 
Do  they  give  any  suggestions  as  to  what  it  is  possible  for 
youth  to  do.  In  1792,  the  presiding  officer  of  the  assembly 
said  to  William  Carey :  “Sit  down,  young  man ;  when  it 
pleases  God  to  convert  the  heathen,  He  will  do  it  without 
your  help.” 

2.  Have  you  ever  been  told  something  like  this :  “Sit  down, 
young  man;  when  it  pleases  God  to  convert  the  economic 
order,  He  will  do  it  without  your  help.”  Will  He? 

3.  Consider  youth  both  as  a  chronological  age  and  as  an 
attitude  of  mind.  Have  you  ever  known  any  old  men 
with  youthful  attitudes?  Any  old-fogies  under  twenty? 
What  is  the  attitude  of  mind  which  you  call  youthful? 


73 


4.  Think  of  the  young  people  you  know.  Are  they  more 
shallow  than  older  people  ?  More  interested  in  vital  issues  ? 
To  what  extent  can  young  people  be  appealed  to  by  the 
challenge  of  a  great  and  worthy  task  to  be  accomplished? 

5.  Must  youth  constitute  itself  another  “class”  among  the 
many  warring  classes  of  a  combative  society?  Must  it 
enter  the  “class  struggle”  by  casting  its  vote  for  one  class 
or  another?  Or  can  youth  in  some  way  transcend  the 
struggle  of  classes  and  yet  at  the  same  time  make  a  dis¬ 
tinctive  youth  contribution  to  the  solution  of  these  conflicts  ? 

6.  What  is  your  place  in  relation  to  the  industrial,  interracial 
and  international  strife  of  this  generation? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

High,  Stanley:  The  Revolt  of  Youth,  Abingdon  Press, 
1923. 

Hunter,  A.  A.:  Youth’s  Adventure,  Appleton,  1925. 

Shaver,  E.  L. :  Christian  Young  People  and  World-Friend¬ 
ship,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1925. 

The  Inquiry:  What  Makes  Up  My  Mind  on  International 
Questions,  The  Association  Press,  1926. 

Davis,  Jerome,  and  Chamberlin,  Roy:  Christian  Fellowship 
Among  the  Nations,  Pilgrim  Press,  1925. 

Stauffer,  M.  T. :  Youth  and  Renaissance  Movements, 
Council  of  Christian  Associations,  1923. 

High,  Stanley:  Youth  Looks  at  the  Church,  1926. 


74 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THROUGH  CONFLICT  TO  COOPERATION. 

“Life  is  strife;  but  clear  thinking  on  the  distinction  between 
strife  that  is  creative  and  strife  that  is  destructive,  is  the  vital 
need  of  our  times.” — Streeter. 

“Strife  is  creative  only  when  it  is  the  expression  of  love.” — 
Streeter. 


A  society  from  which  the  necessity  for  all  struggle  had  been 
removed  would  undoubtedly  end  in  utter  stagnation.  But  the 
idea  that  man  must  go  on  warring  with  and  destroying  his  fellow 
man  is  a  fallacy  without  any  support  in  biology  or  common  sense. 
If  the  probability,  that  man  will  always  need  to  struggle  in  order 
to  maintain  himself  on  high  levels  of  life,  amounts  to  certainty,  it 
is  also  true  that  the  struggle  must  be  transformed,  in  the  nature 
of  the  objects  sought  and  the  methods  employed. 

“The  struggle  for  wealth,  fame  or  power  in  human  society  .  .  . 
generally  leads  to  sterility.”  War  for  these  ends  is  increasingly 
self-defeating.  The  civilization  which  man  has  built  up  through 
the  centuries  rests  upon  that  sacrificial  passion  for  truth  which 
has  characterized  the  scientist  and  the  prophet,  and  upon  the 
capacity  for  cooperation  which  is  nowhere  wanting  in  the  human 
family. 

Youth  possesses  unique  opportunities  for  engaging  in  creative 
strife.  Class  struggle  is  too  often  marred  by  the  sting  of  bitter¬ 
ness,  planted  deep  in  the  soul  by  oppression.  It  is  open  to  youth 
to  strive  for  truth  and  cooperation,  the  stores  of  which, — unlike 
material  riches, — are  inexhaustible.  They  are  increased  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  energy  and  the  intelligence  of  the  strife, — 
and  that  makes  the  strife  creative. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

1.  Be  careful  to  set  reasonable  standards  of  expectation  for 
those  with  whom  you  differ.  What  are  the  advantages 
for  cooperation  in  this? 

2.  Be  careful  to  think  of  all  conflicts,  first  in  terms  of  the 
persons  involved,  and  then  in  terms  of  principles,  property, 


75 


etc.  This  is  to  set  a  scale  of  values  in  which  the  personal 
stands  first.  Does  this,  or  does  it  not,  aid  in  building  up  a 
technique  for  creative  conflict? 

3.  What  are  the  desirable  attitudes  which  should  be  cul¬ 
tivated,  in  reference  to 

(1)  the  opposition? 

(2)  our  own  case? 

(3)  the  larger  whole? 

4.  Every  title  in  the  following  bibliography  is  important  for 
a  study  of  successful  group  discussion  and  the  art  of 
creative  strife : 

Streeter,  B.  H. :  Reality,  chapter  on  “Creative  Strife, 
p.  143f¥,  Macmillan,  1926. 

The  Inquiry :  A  Cooperative  Technique  for  Conflict,  As¬ 
sociation  Press,  1924. 

Sheffield,  A.  D. :  Joining  in  Public  Discussion,  Doran. 
Elliott,  H.  S.:  The  Process  of  Group  Thinking,  Associa¬ 
tion  Press,  1927. 

APPENDIX:  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LEADERS. 

The  purpose  of  these  discussions  is  so  to  train  the  group  that 
their  judgments  with  regard  to  the  vital  international  problems 
of  our  day  may  become  increasingly  reliable.  It  has  now  become 
evident  that  this  purpose  can  effectively  be  accomplished  only  by 
inducing  people  into,  and  guiding  them  through  experiences  in 
which  the  formulation  of  such  judgments  is  involved.  The  pur¬ 
pose  of  this  book  is  to  contribute  to  situations  which  shall  furnish 
opportunities  for  such  experiences.  In  order  to  assist  the  leaders 
of  groups  to  function  more  effectively  in  the  promotion  of  such 
ends,  the  following  suggestions  are  offered. 

1.  The  issues  should  be  clearly  stated  and  kept  before  the 
group. 

2.  The  group  should  keep  to  the  point  at  issue.  Difficulty 
may  be  experienced  with 

a.  Those  who,  either  because  they  have  not  sufficiently 
familiarized  themselves  with  the  topic,  or  because  of 
limitations  of  nature,  are  unable  to  distinguish  between 
what  is  relevant  and  what  is  not. 

b.  Those  who  have  hobbies  which  they  insist  upon  in¬ 
jecting  into  every  discussion. 


76 


c.  Those  who  have  failed  to  distinguish  between  a  dis¬ 
cussion  and  a  talk-fest,  and  who  regard  the  group  as 
an  opportunity  for  garrulous  indulgence. 

3.  There  should  be  no  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  leader  or 
of  any  member  of  the  group  to  put  across  his  opinion  on 
the  rest  of  the  group.  The  existence  of  such  a  situation 
tends  to  defeat  the  purpose  of  discussion  which  is,  not 
the  winning  of  personal  victories,  but  the  arriving  at  more 
reliable  conclusions.  The  ideal  is  that  all  should  pool  their 
experiences  and  viewpoints  to  the  end  that  the  conclu¬ 
sions  of  all  may  be  corrected,  transformed,  and  enriched. 

4.  Members  of  the  group  who  are  less  able  in  expressing 
themselves  often  have  points  which  they  are  not  able  to 
state  with  sufficient  clarity  to  gain  for  them  the  considera¬ 
tion  which  they  deserve.  It  is  the  task  of  the  leader  to 
assist  such  members  to  discover  and  express  the  points 
which  they  really  have  in  the  background  of  their  minds. 

5.  May  the  discussion  leader  himself  take  part  in  the  dis¬ 
cussion,  or  should  he  confine  his  remarks  to  a  summary 
of  the  points  which  others  have  made?  The  leader  should 
wait  to  see  whether  or  not  the  points  which  he  has  in 
mind  will  be  made  by  others.  But  he  is  a  member  of  the 
group,  and  certainly  be  should  not  withhold  from  it  any 
contribution  which  he  may  be  able  to  make. 

6.  Within  the  discussion  there  should  be  orderly  progression. 
Once  a  point  has  been  thoroughly  presented,  proceed  to 
the  next. 

7.  At  the  end  of  each  point  or  topic,  the  leader  or  someone 
else  should  summarize  the  results  of  the  discussion  up  to 
that  point,  and  point  out  the  issues  and  conclusions. 

8.  It  frequently  happens  that  after  even  the  freest  and  fullest 
discussion,  members  of  the  group  still  find  themselves  in 
basic  disagreement  and  yet  are  unwilling  to  let  the  topic 
drop.  In  such  cases  the  group  should  cease  to  discuss 
until  further  data  is  available.  Many  differences  of  opin¬ 
ion  are  due  to  an  inadequate  knowledge  of  the  facts.  In 
and  throughout  all  discussions  the  group  should 

Insist  that  the  discussions  be  based  upon  accurate  and  re¬ 
liable  information,  rather  than  upon  mere  opinions. 

If  civilization  goes  on  the  rocks  it  will  not  be  because  of  any 
dearth  of  opinions  as  to  what  should  have  been  done  to  save  it, 
Communist,  hundred-percenter,  state-socialist,  New  Thoughter, 


77 


viewer-with-alarm,  capitalism  apologist,  and  the-world-is-dying- 
for-lack-of-my-brand-of-mythology  religionist  offer  their  solu¬ 
tions  with  bewildering  avidity  and  pathetic  naivity.  What  is 
needed  today  is  the  intelligent  direction  of  a  surprising  and  en¬ 
couraging  moral  earnestness  which  is  so  outstanding  a  character¬ 
istic  of  a  certain  group  among  the  younger  generation. 

In  discussions  which  center  about  more  personal  problems,  the 
leader  may  sometimes  assume  that  the  members  have  been  fur¬ 
nished  by  their  experiences  with  data  sufficient  to  make  pos¬ 
sible  intelligent  discussion.  But  in  considering  the  larger  social 
issues,  the  necessary  data  can  be  secured  only  by  careful  and 
rather  extensive  study.  No  service  more  valuable  could  be  ren¬ 
dered  than  the  teaching  of  the  group  that  only  earned  conclusions 
are  to  be  regarded  seriously. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Leader. 

Since  the  success  of  a  discussion  group  usually  depends  largely 
upon  the  ability  and  skill  of  its  leader,  careful  preparation  is  es¬ 
sential. 

This  preparation  should  include  a  general  survey  of  the  whole 
topic  and  as  careful  a  predicition  as  possible  of  the  points  which 
are  likely  to  arise.  The  leader  should  not,  of  course,  attempt  to 
determine  just  what  shall  be  brought  up  in  the  group  and  the  way 
in  which  it  shall  be  considered;  much  less  should  he  attempt  to 
steer  the  group  into  adopting  his  own  conclusions.  He  should, 
however,  have  a  sufficient  grasp  of  the  topic  to  be  able  to  see, 
and  to  assist  the  group  in  seeing  the  relationship  of  the  points 
presented,  to  the  total  problem.  This  preparation  is  essential  also 
in  enabling  him  to  assist  those  who  are  struggling  to  express  points 
which  they  either  understand  imperfectly,  or  are  unable  to  state 
clearly. 

The  leader  should  have  available  all  the  sources  of  information 
possible,  in  order  to  assist  the  group  in  making  further  investi¬ 
gations,  and  to  help  it  to  make  certain  that  the  conclusions  reached 
are  based  upon  adequate  evidence. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  preparation  of  the  leader  must  be 
careful,  extensive,  and  thorough.  The  lecturer  need  be  prepared 
upon  only  such  subjects  as  he  himself  has  chosen  and  may  handle 
them  in  the  way  in  which  he  finds  most  convenient.  The  leader 
of  the  discussion  should  be  prepared,  not  only  for  any  point 
which  might  arise,  but  also  for  any  way  of  conceiving  and  stat¬ 
ing  that  point  which  may  occur  to  any  member  of  the  group. 
Some  job,  isn’t  it?  But  it  is  worth  while. 


78 


WORLD  YOUTH  PEACE  CONGRESS 


This  study  outline  was  prepared  especially  for  use 
in  connection  with  the  World  Youth  Peace  Congress 
to  be  held  in  Eerde,  Holland,  from  August  17-26, 
1928.  The  purpose  of  the  Congress  is:  to  stimulate 
and  promote  a  study  of  the  basic  causes  of  war  and 
their  elimination,  and  to  focus  the  enthusiasm  and 
power  of  the  youth  of  the  world  upon  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  agencies  for  dealing  with  the  problem  of  war. 

Information  regarding  delegates  and  the  conditions 
for  attendance  may  be  secured  from  the  American 
Committee  which  has  assumed  responsibility  for 
America’s  participation  in  the  Congress. 


Posters  and  additional  copies  of  this  pamphlet  may  be 

obtained  by  addressing : 

The  American  Committee 
World  Youth  Peace  Congress  of  1928 
104  East  9th  St.,  Room  386 
New  York  City 

Posters — 5  cents  each,  twenty  cents  a  half  dozen. 

Pamphlet — 25  cents  each,  two  dollars  for  ten, 
nine  dollars  for  fifty. 


79 


